EU accession of Central and Eastern European countries: Democracy and integration as conflicting logics

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 18, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 567-594

  Raik, Kristi ^a  

^a FINNISH INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS   (Finland)

Author keywords

Central and Eastern Europe; Democracy; Discourse analysis; Enlargement; Estonia; European Union

Indexed keywords

EID: 8844221286     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325404269719     Document Type: Review

References (78)

1. Laurence Whitehead, "The Enlargement of the European Union: A 'Risky' Form of Democracy Promotion," in Laurence Whitehead, ed., The International Dimensions of Democratization: Europe and the Americas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 415-16.
2. See, e.g., Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
3. By "CEECs" (Central and Eastern European countries), I refer to the post-communist Eastern EU applicant countries. Eight of these countries-the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia-became full members of the EU on 1 May 2004.
4. E.g., several articles in East European Politics and Societies 17:1(2003) (special edition on EU enlargement); Robert Bideleux, "'Europeanization' and the Limits to Democratization in East-Central Europe," in Geoffrey Pridham and Attila Agh, eds., Prospects for Democratic Consolidation in East-Central Europe (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2001), 25-53; Whitehead "The Enlargement of the European Union," 415-42; and several articles in Jan Zielonka and Alex Pravda, eds., Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe, vol. 2, International and Transnational Factors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
5. E.g., several articles in East European Politics and Societies 17:1(2003) (special edition on EU enlargement); Robert Bideleux, "'Europeanization' and the Limits to Democratization in East-Central Europe," in Geoffrey Pridham and Attila Agh, eds., Prospects for Democratic Consolidation in East-Central Europe (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2001), 25-53; Whitehead "The Enlargement of the European Union," 415-42; and several articles in Jan Zielonka and Alex Pravda, eds., Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe, vol. 2, International and Transnational Factors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
6. E.g., several articles in East European Politics and Societies 17:1(2003) (special edition on EU enlargement); Robert Bideleux, "'Europeanization' and the Limits to Democratization in East-Central Europe," in Geoffrey Pridham and Attila Agh, eds., Prospects for Democratic Consolidation in East-Central Europe (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2001), 25-53; Whitehead "The Enlargement of the European Union," 415-42; and several articles in Jan Zielonka and Alex Pravda, eds., Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe, vol. 2, International and Transnational Factors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
7. E.g., several articles in East European Politics and Societies 17:1(2003) (special edition on EU enlargement); Robert Bideleux, "'Europeanization' and the Limits to Democratization in East-Central Europe," in Geoffrey Pridham and Attila Agh, eds., Prospects for Democratic Consolidation in East-Central Europe (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2001), 25-53; Whitehead "The Enlargement of the European Union," 415-42; and several articles in Jan Zielonka and Alex Pravda, eds., Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe, vol. 2, International and Transnational Factors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
8. The effectiveness of conditionality is emphasised in Geoffrey Pridham, "Rethinking Regime-Change Theory and the International Dimension of Democratisation: Ten Years after in East-Central Europe," in Pridham and Agh, Prospectsfor Democratic Consolidation, 54-95; and Diane Ethier, "Is Democracy Promotion Effective? Comparing Conditionality and Incentives," Democratization 10:1(2003): 99-120, among others.
9. The effectiveness of conditionality is emphasised in Geoffrey Pridham, "Rethinking Regime-Change Theory and the International Dimension of Democratisation: Ten Years after in East-Central Europe," in Pridham and Agh, Prospectsfor Democratic Consolidation, 54-95; and Diane Ethier, "Is Democracy Promotion Effective? Comparing Conditionality and Incentives," Democratization 10:1(2003): 99-120, among others.
10. Karen E. Smith, "Western Actors and the Promotion of Democracy," in Zielonka and Pravda, Democratic Consolidation, 49; J. R. Wedel, Collision and Collusion: The Strange Case of Western Aid to Eastern Europe (New York: Palgrave for St. Martin's Griffin, 2001), 87.
11. Karen E. Smith, "Western Actors and the Promotion of Democracy," in Zielonka and Pravda, Democratic Consolidation, 49; J. R. Wedel, Collision and Collusion: The Strange Case of Western Aid to Eastern Europe (New York: Palgrave for St. Martin's Griffin, 2001), 87.
12. Frank Schimmelfennig, Stefan Engert, and Heiko Knobel, "Costs, Commitment and Compliance: The Impact of EU Democratic Conditionality on Latvia, Slovakia and Turkey, "Journal of Common Market Studies 40:3(2003): 495-518; Karen E. Smith, "The Use of Political Conditionality in the EU's Relations with Third Countries: How Effective?" European Foreign Affairs Review 3:2(1998): 253-74; and Robert Youngs, "European Union Democracy Promotion Policies: Ten Years On," European Foreign Affairs Review 6:3(2001): 355-73.
13. Frank Schimmelfennig, Stefan Engert, and Heiko Knobel, "Costs, Commitment and Compliance: The Impact of EU Democratic Conditionality on Latvia, Slovakia and Turkey, "Journal of Common Market Studies 40:3(2003): 495-518; Karen E. Smith, "The Use of Political Conditionality in the EU's Relations with Third Countries: How Effective?" European Foreign Affairs Review 3:2(1998): 253-74; and Robert Youngs, "European Union Democracy Promotion Policies: Ten Years On," European Foreign Affairs Review 6:3(2001): 355-73.
14. Frank Schimmelfennig, Stefan Engert, and Heiko Knobel, "Costs, Commitment and Compliance: The Impact of EU Democratic Conditionality on Latvia, Slovakia and Turkey, "Journal of Common Market Studies 40:3(2003): 495-518; Karen E. Smith, "The Use of Political Conditionality in the EU's Relations with Third Countries: How Effective?" European Foreign Affairs Review 3:2(1998): 253-74; and Robert Youngs, "European Union Democracy Promotion Policies: Ten Years On," European Foreign Affairs Review 6:3(2001): 355-73.
15. The decisive role of domestic factors has been pointed out also by Alex Pravda, "Introduction," in Zielonka and Pravda, Democratic Consolidation, 24-27; Geoffrey Pridham, "The European Union's Democratic Conditionality and Domestic Politics in Slovakia," Europe-Asia Studies 54:2(2002): 223; Pridham, "EU Enlargement and Consolidating Democracy in Post-Communist States-Formality and Reality," Journal of Common Market Studies 40:3(2002), 961; and Schimmelfennig, Engert, and Knobel, "Costs, Commitment and Compliance," among others.
16. The decisive role of domestic factors has been pointed out also by Alex Pravda, "Introduction," in Zielonka and Pravda, Democratic Consolidation, 24-27; Geoffrey Pridham, "The European Union's Democratic Conditionality and Domestic Politics in Slovakia," Europe-Asia Studies 54:2(2002): 223; Pridham, "EU Enlargement and Consolidating Democracy in Post-Communist States-Formality and Reality," Journal of Common Market Studies 40:3(2002), 961; and Schimmelfennig, Engert, and Knobel, "Costs, Commitment and Compliance," among others.
17. The decisive role of domestic factors has been pointed out also by Alex Pravda, "Introduction," in Zielonka and Pravda, Democratic Consolidation, 24-27; Geoffrey Pridham, "The European Union's Democratic Conditionality and Domestic Politics in Slovakia," Europe-Asia Studies 54:2(2002): 223; Pridham, "EU Enlargement and Consolidating Democracy in Post-Communist States-Formality and Reality," Journal of Common Market Studies 40:3(2002), 961; and Schimmelfennig, Engert, and Knobel, "Costs, Commitment and Compliance," among others.
18. The decisive role of domestic factors has been pointed out also by Alex Pravda, "Introduction," in Zielonka and Pravda, Democratic Consolidation, 24-27; Geoffrey Pridham, "The European Union's Democratic Conditionality and Domestic Politics in Slovakia," Europe-Asia Studies 54:2(2002): 223; Pridham, "EU Enlargement and Consolidating Democracy in Post-Communist States-Formality and Reality," Journal of Common Market Studies 40:3(2002), 961; and Schimmelfennig, Engert, and Knobel, "Costs, Commitment and Compliance," among others.
19. For the major contributions, see Whitehead, International Dimensions; and Geoffrey Pridham, Eric Herring, and George Sanford, Building Democracy? The International Dimension of Democratisation in Eastern Europe (London: Leicester University Press, 1997).
20. For the major contributions, see Whitehead, International Dimensions; and Geoffrey Pridham, Eric Herring, and George Sanford, Building Democracy? The International Dimension of Democratisation in Eastern Europe (London: Leicester University Press, 1997).
21. As decided by the Copenhagen European Council of June 1993, the first criterion for EU membership is "stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights and respect for and protection of minorities" (European Council, Presidency Conclusions, Copenhagen, Denmark, 21-22 June 1993).
22. On theoretical periodisation of democratization, see, e.g., Dankwart A. Rustow, "Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics 2:3(1970): 337-47; and Doh Chull Shin, "On the Third Wave of Democratization: A Synthesis and Evaluation of Recent Theory and Research," World Politics 47:1(1994): 143-46.
23. On theoretical periodisation of democratization, see, e.g., Dankwart A. Rustow, "Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics 2:3(1970): 337-47; and Doh Chull Shin, "On the Third Wave of Democratization: A Synthesis and Evaluation of Recent Theory and Research," World Politics 47:1(1994): 143-46.
24. Kristi Raik, Democratic Politics or the Implementation of Inevitabilities?-Estonia's Democracy and Integration into the European Union (Tartu, Estonia: Tartu University Press, 2003).
25. The categories of "discourse theory" and "discourse analysis" include, of course, a wide variety of approaches (see, e.g., Adam Jaworski and Nikolas Coupland, "Introduction: Perspectives on Discourse Analysis," in Adam Jaworski and Nikolas Coupland, eds., The Discourse Reader [London: Routledge, 1999], 1-44).
26. For one of the most notable examples, see John S. Dryzek and Leslie Holmes, Post-Communist Democratization: Political Discourses across Thirteen Countries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
27. This approach comes close to analyses of enlargement as a form of EU governance over the CEECs-the concept of governance referring to the ways and means in which society is steered without a central authority or a government. See Lykke Friis and Anna Murphy, "The European Union and Central and Eastern Europe: Governance and Boundaries, "Journal of Common Market Studies 37:2(1999): 211-32; and Antoaneta Dimitrova, "Governance by Enlargement? The Case of the Administrative Capacity Requirement in the EU's Eastern Enlargement" (Paper presented at the European Consortium for Political Research [ECPR] General Conference, 6-8 September 2001, University of Kent at Canterbury, UK).
28. This approach comes close to analyses of enlargement as a form of EU governance over the CEECs-the concept of governance referring to the ways and means in which society is steered without a central authority or a government. See Lykke Friis and Anna Murphy, "The European Union and Central and Eastern Europe: Governance and Boundaries, "Journal of Common Market Studies 37:2(1999): 211-32; and Antoaneta Dimitrova, "Governance by Enlargement? The Case of the Administrative Capacity Requirement in the EU's Eastern Enlargement" (Paper presented at the European Consortium for Political Research [ECPR] General Conference, 6-8 September 2001, University of Kent at Canterbury, UK).
29. My approach draws to some extent on Michel Foucault and has been greatly influenced by the "Essex school" of political discourse theory, most notably the writings of Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe. On the conceptions of discourse that have inspired my work, see, for instance, David Howarth and Yannis Stavrakakis, "Introducing Discourse Theory and Political Analysis," in D. Howarth, A. J. Norval, and Y. Stavrakakis, eds., Discourse Theory and Political Analysis: Identities, Hegemonies and Social Change (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2000), 1-23; and Maarten A. Hajer, The Politics of Environmental Discourse.. Ecological Modernization and the Policy Process, (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1995), 42-72.
30. My approach draws to some extent on Michel Foucault and has been greatly influenced by the "Essex school" of political discourse theory, most notably the writings of Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe. On the conceptions of discourse that have inspired my work, see, for instance, David Howarth and Yannis Stavrakakis, "Introducing Discourse Theory and Political Analysis," in D. Howarth, A. J. Norval, and Y. Stavrakakis, eds., Discourse Theory and Political Analysis: Identities, Hegemonies and Social Change (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2000), 1-23; and Maarten A. Hajer, The Politics of Environmental Discourse.. Ecological Modernization and the Policy Process, (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1995), 42-72.
31. Cf. Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1980), 87-92.
32. Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Towards a Radical Democratic Politics (London: Verso, 1985), 153.
33. Ibid., 155.
34. Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971), 2-3.
35. Cf. John S. Dryzek, Deliberative Democracy and Beyond: Liberals, Critics, Contestations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 85-86.
36. Ibid., 79, 1.
37. As for EU discourse, the main materials were documents of the European Commission (especially yearly progress reports). The analysis also included documents of the European Parliament and Council and Presidency Conclusions of the European Council. The case study of Estonia examined documents of the Estonian Government, Foreign Ministry, and the Office of European Integration; speeches by leading politicians; stenogramms of EU debates held in Parliament (the Riigikogu); EU-related articles published in Postimees, the largest Estonian daily; and interviews with politicians and civil servants.
38. Foucault, Power/Knowledge, 156.
39. Heather Grabbe, "How Does the EU Measure When the CEECs Are Ready to join," in Charles Jenkins, ed., The Unification of Europe? An Analysis of EU Enlargement (London: Centre for Reform, 2000), 43.
40. The idea of Accession Partnerships (APs) was introduced in 1997, and the first versions that were designed individually for each applicant country were presented in March 1998.
41. The only notable case of applying democratic conditionality was the exclusion of Slovakia from the first group of enlargement in 1997 because it did not satisfy the political criteria.
42. For example, in the presentation of the 1998 Regular Reports, Commissioner van den Broek stated, "We issue a stern reminder to the negotiating countries, and in particular the Czech Republic and Slovenia, that they need to speed up their adoption and implementation of the acquis. The slowdown we have observed since the Opinions is a cause for concern. It needs to be very clear that delays in transposition or implementation of the acquis cannot simply be resolved through transitional periods" (Presentation on Regular Reports to the European Parliament, Hans van den Broek, Member of the European Commission, SPEECH/98/236, European Parliament, Brussels, 4 November 1998).
43. European Commission, "Commission Sets Out an Ambitious Accession Strategy and Proposes to Open Accession Negotiations with Six More Candidate Countries," IP/99/751, Brussels, 13 October 1999. http://europa.eu.int/ rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference= IP/99/751&format=HTML&aged= 0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en.
44. I b i d.
45. European Commission, Hans van den Broek, Interview on Enlargement, Vienna European Council, 11-12 December 1998, http: //europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/ docs/speeches/ vdb_vienna.htm (accessed 9 February 2000).
46. European Commission, "Commission Sets Out an Ambitious Accession Strategy."
47. European Commission, "Commission Encourages Candidate Countries to Further Develop Their Administrative Capacity," IP/02/813, Brussles, 5 June 2002, http://europa.eu.int/ rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/02/ 813&format=HTML&aged=0&language= EN&guiLanguage=en.
48. See, e.g., Graham Avery and Fraser Cameron, The Enlargement of the European Union (Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998).
49. Presentation on Regular Reports, Hans van den Broek, SPEECH/98/236.
50. Ibid.; European Commission, "Commission Adopts Reports on Progress by Candidate Countries," IP/98/964, Brussels, 4 November 1998, http://europa.eu.int/rapid/ pressReleasesAction.do? reference =IP/98/964&format=HTML&aged=l&language=EN& guiLanguage=en; and European Commission, "Commission Sets Out an Ambitious Accession Strategy" IP/99/751.
51. Ibid.; European Commission, "Commission Adopts Reports on Progress by Candidate Countries," IP/98/964, Brussels, 4 November 1998, http://europa.eu.int/rapid/ pressReleasesAction.do? reference =IP/98/964&format=HTML&aged=l&language=EN& guiLanguage=en; and European Commission, "Commission Sets Out an Ambitious Accession Strategy" IP/99/751.
52. Ibid.; European Commission, "Commission Adopts Reports on Progress by Candidate Countries," IP/98/964, Brussels, 4 November 1998, http://europa.eu.int/rapid/ pressReleasesAction.do? reference =IP/98/964&format=HTML&aged=l&language=EN& guiLanguage=en; and European Commission, "Commission Sets Out an Ambitious Accession Strategy" IP/99/751.
53. See, e.g., Avery and Cameron, Enlargement of the European Union, 121-39.
54. European Commission, Hans van den Broek, Interview on Enlargement.
55. E.g., Mart Laar, "The Role of the Government in the Process of Adoption of the Acquis Communautaire" (Speech given at the conference, "Estonia and the European Union: Estonia on Its Way to a Changing Europe," 2-3 November 2000, Tallinn, Estonia).
56. Laar, speech to the Estonian Parliament, 19 January 2000.
57. See Merje Kuus, "European Integration in Identity Narratives in Estonia: A Quest for Security," Journal of Peace Research 39:1(2002): 91-108.
58. Toomas Hendrik Ilves, statement at the opening of Estonia's accession negotiations with European Union, Brussels, 31 March 1998.
59. Toomas Hendrik Ilves, address to the Estonian Parliament, 5 December 1996.
60. Priit Kolbre (then Estonia's ambassador in the EU), interview to Postimees, 9 November 1998.
61. Laar, "The Role of the Government."
62. Karen Henderson, "Reforming the Post-Communist States: Meeting the Political Conditions for Membership," in Charles Jenkins, ed., The Unification of Europe? An Analysis of EU Enlargement (London: Centre for Reform, 2000), 33.
63. Marju Lauristin and Peeter Vihalemm, "Recent Historical Developments in Estonia: Three Stages of Transition (1987-1997)," in Marju Lauristin, Peeter Vihalemm, Karl Erik Rosengren, and Lennart Weibull, eds., Return to the Western World: Cultural and Political Perspectives on the Estonian Post-Communist Transition (Tartu, Estonia: Tartu University Press, 1997), 75-77; and Marju Lauristin, "Contexts of Transition," in Lauristin et al., Return to the Western World, 37.
64. Marju Lauristin and Peeter Vihalemm, "Recent Historical Developments in Estonia: Three Stages of Transition (1987-1997)," in Marju Lauristin, Peeter Vihalemm, Karl Erik Rosengren, and Lennart Weibull, eds., Return to the Western World: Cultural and Political Perspectives on the Estonian Post-Communist Transition (Tartu, Estonia: Tartu University Press, 1997), 75-77; and Marju Lauristin, "Contexts of Transition," in Lauristin et al., Return to the Western World, 37.
65. Tõnu Õnnepalu, "Essee: Ideaal ja spliin," Postimees, 9 November 2002.
66. See Raik, Democratic Politics, 178-87, 237. The other main reasons for euroscepticism were concern about national sovereignty and about economic and social consequences of EU membership.
67. For example, both countries oppose the extension of qualified majority voting in the fields of taxation, social security, and common security and defense. For Estonian positions, see http://www.eib.ee/files/ Valitsuse%20Euroopa%20Liidu%20poliitika%202004-2006%20_KINNITATUD_.pdf. According to the Eurobarometer survey conducted in autumn 2003, only 38 percent of Estonians believed that EU membership would be a good thing for their country, which placed them as the third most negative country among current and future member states, headed only by the United Kingdom and Austria (Eurobarometer EB60-CC-EB 2003.4, http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/ archives/cceb/2003/cceb2003.4_comparative.pdf).
68. Cf. Attila Ágh, "Early Democratic Consolidation in Hungary and the Europeanisation of the Hungarian Polity," in Pridham and Agh, Prospectsfor Democratic Consolidation in East-Central Europe, 157-79.
69. On the problem of overload for democratization in general, see Giovanni Sartori, "How Far Can Free Government Travel?" Journal of Democracy 6:3(1995): 101-11. The risks inherent in the extensive EU requirements for democratic performance in the applicant countries have been pointed out by several authors, for instance, Alex Pravda, "Introduction," 14; and Pridham, "Rethinking Regime-Change," 74.
70. On the problem of overload for democratization in general, see Giovanni Sartori, "How Far Can Free Government Travel?" Journal of Democracy 6:3(1995): 101-11. The risks inherent in the extensive EU requirements for democratic performance in the applicant countries have been pointed out by several authors, for instance, Alex Pravda, "Introduction," 14; and Pridham, "Rethinking Regime-Change," 74.
71. On the problem of overload for democratization in general, see Giovanni Sartori, "How Far Can Free Government Travel?" Journal of Democracy 6:3(1995): 101-11. The risks inherent in the extensive EU requirements for democratic performance in the applicant countries have been pointed out by several authors, for instance, Alex Pravda, "Introduction," 14; and Pridham, "Rethinking Regime-Change," 74.
72. Aare Kasemets, "Seaduseelnõude seletuskirjade, informatiivsus sotsiaal-majanduslike mõjude, eurointegratsiooni ja osalusdemokraatia valdkonnas," Riigikogu Toimetised-Journal of Estonian Parliament 1: 1(2000), http: //www.riigikogu.ee/rva/toimetised/rito1/ artiklid/22kasemets.htm.
73. These problems were repeatedly discussed in the Parliament; see, e.g., Riigikogu stenogramm, 19 January 2000 and 18 January 2001 (especially the speech by Kelam).
74. See especially European Commission, "Composite Paper. Regular Report from the Commission on Progress towards Accession by Each of the Candidate Countries," Brussels, 13 October 1999, http: //europa.eu.int/comm/ enlargement/report_10_99/pdf/en/composite_en.pdf.
75. E.g., Edgar Savisaar, "Tingimusteta Euroliitu tormates," Postimees, 22 January 1999.
76. Cf. the critical analysis of the EU's impact in Anna Grzymala-Busse and Abby Innes, "Great Expectations: The EU and Domestic Political Competition in East Central Europe," East European Politics and Societies 17:1(2003): 64-73.
77. For a more detailed analysis, see Raik, Democratic Politics.
78. For a distinctly negative assessment of EU accession, see Peter Mair, "Popular Democracy and EU Enlargement," East European Politics and Societies 17:1(2003): 63.