THE SPEAKING SECTION OF THE TOEFL IBT™ (SSTIBT): TEST-TAKERS' REPORTED STRATEGIC BEHAVIORS

ETS Research Report Series

Volumn 2009, Issue 2, 2009, Pages i-118

  Swain, Merrill ^a   Huang, Li Shih ^b   Barkaoui, Khaled ^c   Brooks, Lindsay ^a   Lapkin, Sharon ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA   (Canada)

^c YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

academic speaking; second language speaking; speaking tasks; speaking tests; strategic behaviors; TOEFL iBT

Indexed keywords

EID: 85164572458     PISSN: None     EISSN: 23308516     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/j.2333-8504.2009.tb02187.x     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Anderson, N. (2005). L2 learning strategies. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning. (pp. 757–771). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
2. Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
3. Bachman, L. F. (2002). Some reflections on task-based language performance assessment. Language Testing, 19(4), 453–476.
4. Bachman, L. F., & Cohen, A. D. (Eds.). (1998). Interfaces between second language acquisition and language testing research. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
5. Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (1996). Language testing in practice. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
6. Barkaoui, K. (2008). Effects of scoring method and rater experience on ESL essay rating processes and outcomes. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Toronto, ON, Canada.
7. Bialystok, E. (1981). The role of conscious strategies in second language proficiency. Modern Language Journal, 65, 24–35.
8. Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.
9. Bruen, J. (2001). Strategies for success: Profiling the effective learner of German. Foreign Language Annals, 34(3), 216–225.
10. Butler, F. A., Eignor, D., Jones, S., McNamara, T., & Suomi, B. K. (2000). TOEFL 2000 speaking framework: A working paper (TOEFL Monograph Series Rep. No. 20) Princeton, NJ: ETS.
11. Bygate, M., Skehan, P., & Swain, M. (Eds.). Researching pedagogic tasks: Second language learning, teaching and testing. Harlow, England: Longman.
12. Canale, M. (1983). On some dimensions of language proficiency. In J. W. Oller, Jr. (Ed.), Issues in language testing research (pp. 333–342). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
13. Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1–47.
14. Chalhoub-Deville, M. (2001). Task-based assessments: Characteristics and validity evidence. In M. Bygate, P. Skehan, & M. Swain (Eds.). Researching pedagogic tasks: Second language learning, teaching and testing (pp. 210–228). Harlow, England: Longman.
15. Chalhoub-Deville, M. (2003). Second language interaction: Current perspectives and future trends. Language Testing, 20, 369–383.
16. Chamot, A. U. (1993). Student responses to learning strategy instruction in the foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 26, 308–321.
17. Chamot, A. U., Küpper, L., & Impink-Hernandez, M. V. (1988). A study of learning strategies in foreign language instruction: Findings of the longitudinal study. McLean, VA: Interstate Research Associates.
18. Chapelle, C., & Douglas, D. (1993, March). Interpreting L2 performance data. Paper presented at the Second Language Research Colloquium, Pittsburgh, PA.
19. Chapelle, C., Grabe, W., & Berns, M. (1997). Communicative language proficiency: Definition and implications for TOEFL 2000 (TOEFL Monograph Series Rep. No. 10). Princeton, NJ: ETS.
20. Cohen, A. D. (1984). On taking language tests: What the students report. Language Testing, 1(1), 70–81.
21. Cohen, A. D. (1994). Assessing language ability in the classroom (2nd ed.). Boston: Newbury House/Heinle & Heinle.
22. Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. London: Longman.
23. Cohen, A. D. (2002). Preparing teachers for styles- and strategies-based instruction. In V. Crew, C. Davison, & M. Barley (Eds.), Reflection language in education (pp. 49–69). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education.
24. Cohen, A. D. (2007). The coming of age for research on test-taking strategies. In J. Fox, M. Wesche, D. Bayliss, L. Cheng, C. E. Turner, & C. Doe (Eds.), Language testing reconsidered (pp. 89–111). Ottawa, Canada: University of Ottawa Press.
25. Cohen, A. D., & Aphek, E. (1981). Easifying second language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 3(2), 221–235.
26. Cohen, A. D., & Olshtain, E. (1993). The production of speech acts by EFL learners. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 33–58.
27. Cohen, A. D., Weaver, S., & Li, T.-Y. (1996). The impact of strategies-based instruction on speaking a foreign language (CARLA Working Papers Series No. 4). Minneapolis, MN: Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition.
28. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). New York: Academic Press.
29. Dadour, S. (1995). The effectiveness of selected learning strategies in developing oral communication of English department students in faculties of education. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Mansoura University, Damietta, Egypt.
30. Dadour, S., & Robbins, J. (1996). University-level studies using strategy instruction to improve speaking ability in Egypt and Japan. In R. L. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning motivation: Pathways to the new century (pp. 157–166). Mānoa, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
31. Dörnyei, Z. (1995). On the teachability of communication strategies. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 55–85.
32. Douglas, D. (1997). Testing speaking ability in academic contexts: Theoretical considerations (TOEFL Monograph Series Rep. No. 8.) Princeton, NJ: ETS.
33. Douglas, D. (2000). Assessing languages for specific purposes. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
34. Dreyer, C., & Oxford, R. (1996). Learning strategies and other predictors of ESL proficiency among Afrikaans speakers in South Africa. In R. L. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 61–74). Mānoa, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
35. Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
36. ETS. (2004). iBT/Next Generation TOEFL Test: Independent speaking rubrics. Retrieved May 20, 2009, from http://www.ets.org/Media/Tests/TOEFL/pdf/Speaking_Rubrics.pdf.
37. Færch, C., & Kasper, G. (1980). Processes and strategies in foreign language learning and communication. Interlanguage Studies Bulletin, 5, 47–118.
38. Færch, C., & Kasper, G. (Eds.). (1983). Strategies in interlanguage communication. New York: Longman.
39. Feyten, C. M., Flaitz, J., & LaRocca, M. (1999). Consciousness raising and strategy use. Applied Language Learning, 10(1 & 2), 15–38.
40. Field, A. (2005). Discovering statistics using SPSS (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
41. Flaitz, J., & Feyten, C. (1996). A two-phase study involving consciousness raising and strategy use for foreign language learners. In R. L. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 211–225). Mānoa, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
42. Fulcher, G. (2003). Testing second language speaking. London: Longman/Pearson Education.
43. Gass, S. M., & Mackey, A. (2000). Stimulated recall methodology in second language research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
44. Green, N. M., & Oxford, R. (1995). A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and gender. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 261–297.
45. Hamp-Lyons, L., & Lynch, B. K. (1998). Perspectives on validity: A historical analysis of language testing conference abstracts. In A. J. Kunnan (Ed.), Validation in language assessment (pp. 253–276). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
46. Harley, B., Allen, P., Cummins, J., & Swain, M. (1990). The development of second language proficiency. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
47. Homburg, T. J., & Spaan, M. C. (1981). ESL reading proficiency assessment: Testing strategies. In M. Hines & W. Rutherford (Eds.), On TESOL '81 (pp. 25–33). Washington, DC: TESOL.
48. Huang, L.-S. (2004). Focus on the learner: Language learning strategies for fostering self-regulated learning. Contact [Special Research Symposium Issue], 30, 37–54.
49. Jamieson, J., Jones, S., Kirsch, I., Mosenthal, P., & Taylor, C. (2000). TOEFL 2000 framework: A working paper (TOEFL Monograph Series Rep. No. 16). Princeton, NJ: ETS.
50. Kæsper, G., & Kellerman, E. (1997). (Eds.). Communication strategies: Psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives. London: Longman.
51. Kunnan, A. J. (1995). Theoretical models and empirical studies. In M. Milanovic (Ed.), Test taker characteristics and test performance (Studies in Language Testing 2). Cambridge, England: University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate.
52. th Language Testing Research Colloquium, Long Beach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
53. LoCastro, V. (1994). Learning strategies and learning environments. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 409–414.
54. McNamara, T. F. (1996). Measuring second language performance. London: Longman.
55. Milanovic, M., Saville, N., Pollitt, A., & Cook, A. (1996). Developing rating scales for CASE: Theoretical concerns and analyses. In A. Cumming & R. Berwick (Eds.), Validation in language testing (pp. 15–38). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
56. Naiman, N., Fröhlich M., Stern H. H., & Todesco, A. (1978). The good language learner. Research in Education Series 7. Toronto, ON: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
57. Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality: Principles and implications of cognitive psychology. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.
58. Norris, J. M., Brown, J. D., Hudson, T., & Yoshioka, J. (1998). Designing second language performance assessments (SLTCC Technical Rep. 8). Mānoa, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
59. Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
60. Nunan, D. (1996). The effect of strategy training on student motivation, strategy knowledge, perceived utility and deployment. Unpublished manuscript, University of Hong Kong.
61. O'Malley, M. J., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
62. Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies. New York: Newbury House.
63. Oxford, R. L. (Ed.). (1996). Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives (SLT&CC Technical Rep. No. 13). Mānoa, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
64. Oxford, R. L. (2001). Language learning styles and strategies. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (pp. 359–366). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
65. Oxford, R. L., & Burry-Stock, J. (1995). Assessing the use of language learning strategies worldwide with the ESL/EFL version of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. System, 23, 1–23.
66. Oxford, R. L., & Ehrman, M. E. (1995). Adults' language learning strategies in an intensive foreign language program in the United States. System, 23, 38–45.
67. Palmer, A. S., Groot, P. J. M., & Trosper, G. A. (Eds.). (1981). The construct validation of tests of communicative competence. Washington, DC: TESOL.
68. Paribakht, T. (1985). Strategic competence and language proficiency. Applied Linguistics, 6, 132–146.
69. Phakiti, A. (2003). A closer look at the relationship of cognitive and metacognitive strategy use to EFL reading achievement test. Language Testing, 20, 26–56.
70. Politzer, R., & McGroarty, M. (1985). An exploratory study of learning behaviors and their relationship to gains in linguistic and communicative competence. TESOL Quarterly, 19, 103–124.
71. Poulisse, N. (1987). Problems and solutions in the classification of compensatory strategies. Second Language Research, 3, 141–153.
72. Poulisse, N. (1990). The use of compensatory strategies by Dutch learners of English. Dordrecht, Holland: Foris.
73. Pressley, M., & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal protocols of reading: The nature of constructively responsive reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
74. Purpura, J. E. (1997). An analysis of the relationships between test-takers' cognitive and metacognitive strategy use and second language test performance. Language Learning, 47, 289–325.
75. Purpura, J. E. (1998). Investigating the effects of strategy use and second language test performance with high- and low-ability test-takers: A structural equation modeling approach. Language Testing, 15, 333–379.
76. Purpura, J. E. (1999). Learner strategy use and performance and language tests: A structural equation modeling approach. Cambridge, England: University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate and Cambridge University Press.
77. nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
78. Rosenfeld, M., Oltman, P. K., & Sheppard, K. (2004). Investigating the validity of TOEFL: A feasibility study using content and criterion-related strategies (TOEFL Research Rep. No. 71). Princeton, NJ: ETS.
79. Rubin, J. (1975). What the “good language learner” can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 41–51.
80. Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies: Theoretical assumptions, research history, and typology. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 15–29). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International.
81. Russo, J. E., Johnson, E. J., & Stephens, D. L. (1989). The validity of verbal protocols. Memory and Cognition, 17, 759–769.
82. Selinger, H. W. (1983). The language learner as linguist: Of metaphors and realities. Applied Linguistics, 4, 179–191.
83. Skehan, P. (1991). Individual differences in second-language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13, 275–298.
84. Skehan, P. (1996). A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics, 17, 38–62.
85. Song, X. (2005). Language learner strategy use and English proficiency on the Michigan English Language Assessment Battery. Spaan Fellow Working Papers in Second or Foreign Language Assessment, 3, 1–26.
86. Swain, M. (1985). Large-scale communicative language testing: A case study. In Y. P. Lee, A. C. Y. Fok, R. Lord, & G. Low (Eds.), New directions in language testing (pp. 35–46). Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.
87. Swain, M. (2001). Examining dialogue: Another approach to content specification and to validating inferences drawn from test scores. Language Testing, 18, 275–306.
88. Wenden, A., & Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies in language learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International.
89. Wesche, M. B. (1981). Communicative testing in a second language. Canadian Modern Language Review, 37, 551–571.
90. Wesche, M. B. (1987). Second language performance testing: The Ontario test of ESL as an example. Language Testing, 4, 28–47.
91. Wharton, G. (2000). Language learning strategy use of bilingual foreign language learners in Singapore. Language Learning, 50, 203–243.
92. Widdowson, H. (1983). Learning purpose and language use. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
93. Yoshida-Morise, Y. (1998). The use of communication strategies in LPIs. In R. Young & W. He (Eds.), Talking and testing: Discourse approaches to the assessment of oral proficiency (pp. 205–238). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
94. Yule, G., & Tarone, E. (1997). Investigating L2 reference: Pros and cons. In G. Kasper & E. Kellerman (Eds.), Advances in communication strategy research (pp. 17–30). New York: Longman.