Organophosphates and Carbamates

Haddad and Winchester's Clinical Management of Poisoning and Drug Overdose, Fourth Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1171-1184

  Aaron, Cynthia K ^a,b  

^a WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b CHILDREN'S HOSPITAL OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85158923321     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-7216-0693-4.50081-5     Document Type: Chapter

References (159)

1. M Eddleston and MR Phillips (2004) Self-poisoning with pesticides. BMJ 328 42-44.
2. D Gunnell and M Eddleston (2003) Suicide by intentional ingestion of pesticides: a continuing tragedy in developing countries. Int J Epidemiol 32 902-909.
3. J Jeyaratnam (1990) Acute pesticide poisoning: a major global health problem. World Health Stat Q 43 139-144.
4. International Programme of Chemical Safety (IPCS INTOX): Pesticide Project: Collection of Human Case Data Exposures to Pesticides, 2002, http://www.intox.org/firstpage.htm.
5. CDC National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: NIOSH Safety and Health Topic: Pesticide Illness and Injury Surveillance, http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/pesticides/2004.
6. WA Watson, TL Litovitz, CG Rodgers Jr, et al. (2003) 2002 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am J Emerg Med 21(5), 353-421.
7. WA Watson, TL Litovitz, GC Rodgers, et al. (2005) 2004 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am J Emerg Med 23 589-666.
8. T Okumura, N Takasu, S Ishimatsu, et al. (1996) Report on 640 victims of the Tokyo subway sarin attack. Ann Emerg Med 28(2), 129-135.
9. MK Johnson, D Jacobsen, TJ Meredith, et al. (2000) Evaluation of antidotes for poisoning by organophosphorus pesticides. Emerg Med 12 22-37.
10. Buttler T, Martinkovic W, Nesheim N: Factors influencing the movement of pesticides to ground water. In Pesticide Information Office (ed): University of Florida Cooperative Extension Service (EDIS), 1998, http://edas.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/PI/P100200.pdf.
11. World Health Organization: The WHO recommended classification of pesticides by hazard. In International Programme on Chemical Safety (eds): Inter-organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals, 2004, http:www.who.int/ipcs/publications/pesticides_hazards_rev_3.pdf.
12. DP Morgan (1989) Recognition and management of pesticide poisonings 4th ed EPA-540/9–88-001 Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
13. R Zajtchuk and RF Bellamy (Eds) (1997) Textbook of Military Medicine: Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare. Part I Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, U.S. Dept of the Army 129-179.
14. FR Sidell (1997) Nerve agents. R Zajtchuck, RF Bellamy (Eds) Textbook of Military Medicine. Part 1. Warfare, Weaponry and the Casualty: Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, U.S. Army
15. LG Costa, TB Cole and CE Furlong (2003) Polymorphisms of paraoxonase (PON1) and their significance in clinical toxicology of organophosphates. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 41(1), 37-45.
16. Temple WA, Smith NA: Organophosphorus pesticides (PIM G001). In IPCS INTOX Databank, http://www.intox.org/databank/documents/chemical/organopho/PIMG001.htm.
17. WJ Hayes Jr (1982) Pesticides Studied in Man Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins
18. M Eddleston, A Dawson, L Karalliedde, et al. (2004) Early management after self-poisoning with an organophosphate or carbamate pesticide. A treatment protocol for junior doctors. Crit Care 8 R391-R397.
19. F Eyer, V Meichsner, D Kiderlen, et al. (2003) Human parathion poisoning: a toxicokinetic analysis. Toxicol Rev 22 143-163.
20. N Paul and TJ Mannathukkoran (2005) Intermediate syndrome following carbamate poisoning. Clin Toxicol 43 867-868.
21. T Namba, CT Nolte, J Jackrel and D Grob (1971) Poisoning due to organophosphate insecticides. Acute and chronic manifestations. Am J Med 50(4), 475-492.
22. MJ Coye, PG Barnett, JE Midtling, et al. (1986) Clinical confirmation of organophosphate poisoning of agricultural workers. Am J Ind Med 10(4), 399-409.
23. MJ Coye, PG Barnett, JE Midtling, et al. (1987) Clinical confirmation of organophosphate poisoning by serial cholinesterase analyses. Arch Intern Med 147(3), 438-442.
24. M Lifshitz, M Rotenberg, S Sofer, et al. (1994) Carbamate poisoning and oxime treatment in children: a clinical and laboratory study. Pediatrics 93(4), 652-655.
25. Reigart JR, Roberts JR: Organophosphate insecticides. In Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisoning, 5th ed. Washington, DC, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 735-R98-003, 1999, p 7, http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/safety/healthcare, http://npic.orst.edu/rmpp.htm.
26. WN Aldridge and E Reiner (1972) Enzyme Inhibitors as Substrates London: North Holland 8-52.
27. P Eyer (2004) The role of oximes in the management of organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. Toxicol Rev 22 143-163.
28. D Jacobsen, TJ Meredith and J Haines (2001) Poisoning with organophosphorus compounds. Emerg Med (Fremantle) 13 260.
29. M Eddleston, L Szinicz, P Eyer and N Buckley (2002) Oximes in acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning: a systematic review of clinical trials. Q J Med 95 275-283.
30. M Lifshitz, E Shahak and S Sofer (1999) Carbamate and organophosphate poisoning in young children. Pediatr Emerg Care 15(2), 102-103.
31. RM Dawson and M Poretski (1985) Carbamylated acetylcholinesterase: acceleration of decarbamylation by bispyridinium oximes. Biochem Pharmacol 34(24), 4337-4340.
32. F Worek, M Backer, H Thiermann, et al. (1997) Reappraisal of indications and limitations of oxime therapy in organophosphate poisoning. Hum Exp Toxicol 16(8), 466-472.
33. SB Bird, RJ Gaspari and EW Dickson (2003) Early death due to severe organophosphate poisoning is a centrally mediated process. Acad Emerg Med 10(4), 295-298.
34. EW Dickson, SB Bird, RJ Gaspari, et al. (2003) Diazepam inhibits organophosphate-induced central respiratory depression. Acad Emerg Med 10(12), 1303-1306.
35. LM Haddad (1992) Organophosphate poisoning [editorial]. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 30 331-332.
36. RJ Zwiener and CM Ginsburg (1988) Organophosphate and carbamate poisoning in infants and children. Pediatrics 81 121.
37. N Senanayake, HJ de Silva and L Karalliedde (1993) A scale to assess severity in organophosphorus intoxication: POP scale. Hum Exp Toxicol 12 297-299.
38. Y Asari, Y Kamijyo and K Soma (2004) Changes in the hemodynamic state of patients with acute lethal organophosphate poisoning. Vet Hum Toxicol 46(1), 5-9.
39. J Joubert, PH Joubert, M van der Spuy and E van Graan (1984) Acute organophosphate poisoning presenting with choreoasthetosis. Clin Toxicol 22 187-191.
40. L Karalliedde and JB Henry (1993) Effects of organophosphates on skeletal muscle. Hum Exp Toxicol 12 289-296.
41. PG Moore and OF James (1981) Acute pancreatitis induced by acute organophosphate poisoning. Postgrad Med J 57 660-662.
42. Z Kiss and T Fazekas (1983) Organophosphates and torsades de pointes ventricular tachycardia. J R Soc Med 76(11), 984-985.
43. AM Saadeh (2001) Metabolic complications of organophosphate and carbamate poisoning. Trop Doct 31(3), 149-152.
44. JB Henry (1996) Clinical Diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods Philadelphia: WB Saunders
45. J Yager, H McLean, M Hudes and RC Spear (1976) Components of variability in blood cholinesterase assay results. J Occup Med 18(4), 242-244.
46. D Meller, I Fraser and M Kryger (1981) Hyperglycemia in anticholinesterase poisoning. Can Med Assoc J 124(6), 745-748.
47. DB Barr, WE Turner, E DiPietro, et al. (2002) Measurement of p-nitrophenol in the urine of residents whose homes were contaminated with methyl parathion. Environ Health Perspect 110(Suppl 6), 1085-1091.
48. M Eddleston, N Buckley, H Checketts, et al. (2004) Speed of initial atropinisation in significant organophosphorus pesticide poisoning—a comparison of recommended regimens. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42 865-875.
49. BS Selden and SC Curry (1987) Prolonged succinylcholine-induced paralysis in organophosphate insecticide poisoning. Ann Emerg Med 16(2), 215-217.
50. M Eddleston, S Singh and N Buckley (2003) Acute organophosphorus poisoning. Clin Evid (BMJ) 9 1542-1553.
51. AY Chang, JY Chan, FJ Kao, et al. (2001) Engagement of inducible nitric oxide synthase at the rostral ventrolateral medulla during mevinphos intoxication in the rat. J Biomed Sci 8(6), 475-483.
52. NA Buckley, AH Dawson and IM Whyte (1994) Organophosphate poisoning: peripheral vascular resistance—a measure of adequate atropinization. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 32(1), 61-68.
53. DH Yen, JC Yen, WB Len, et al. (2001) Spectral changes in systemic arterial pressure signals during acute mevinphos intoxication in the rat. Shock 15(1), 35-41.
54. V Yeo, K Young and CH Tsuen (2002) Anticholinesterase-induced hypotension treated with pulmonary artery catheterization-guided vasopressors. Vet Hum Toxicol 44(2), 99-100.
55. LJ Martin, JA Doebler, TM Shih and A Anthony (1985) Protective effect of diazepam pretreatment on soman-induced brain lesion formation. Brain Res 325(1–2), 287-289.
56. JH McDonough Jr, LW Dochterman, CD Smith and TM Shih (1995) Protection against nerve agent-induced neuropathology, but not cardiac pathology, is associated with the anticonvulsant action of drug treatment. Neurotoxicology 16(1), 123-132.
57. JH McDonough Jr, NK Jaax, RA Crowley, et al. (1989) Atropine and/or diazepam therapy protects against soman-induced neural and cardiac pathology. Fundam Appl Toxicol 13(2), 256-276.
58. JH McDonough Jr, J McMonagle, T Copeland, et al. (1999) Comparative evaluation of benzodiazepines for control of soman-induced seizures. Arch Toxicol 73(8–9), 473-478.
59. JH McDonough Jr, LD Zoeffel, J McMonagle, et al. (2000) Anticonvulsant treatment of nerve agent seizures: anticholinergics versus diazepam in soman-intoxicated guinea pigs. Epilepsy Res 38(1), 1-14.
60. T Shih, JH McDonough Jr and I Koplovitz (1999) Anticonvulsants for soman-induced seizure activity. J Biomed Sci 6(2), 86-96.
61. TM Shih, SM Duniho and JH McDonough (2003) Control of nerve agent-induced seizures is critical for neuroprotection and survival small star, filled. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 188(2), 69-80.
62. TM Shih, TA Koviak and BR Capacio (1991) Anticonvulsants for poisoning by the organophosphorus compound soman: pharmacological mechanisms. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 15(3), 349-362.
63. PS Johnson and EK Michaelis (1992) Characterization of organophosphate interactions at N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in brain synaptic membranes. Mol Pharmacol 41(4), 750-756.
64. S Rump and M Kowalczyk (2003–2004) Management of convulsions in nerve agent acute poisoning: a Polish perspective. J Med Chem Def 1.
65. M Little and L Murray (2004) Consensus statement: Risk of nosocomial organoposphate poisoning in the emergency departments. Emergency Medicine Australasia 16 456-458.
66. D Roberts and L Senarathna (2004) Secondary contamination in organophoshate poisoning. Q J Med 97 1-2.
67. SN Kales and DC Christiani (2004) Acute chemical emergencies. N Engl J Med 350(8), 800-808.
68. U.S. Army Medical Research Institute for Chemical Defense (ed): Medical Management of Chemical Casualties Handbook, 3rd ed. USAMRICD MCMR-UV-ZM, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, 2000, http://www.gmha.org/bioterrorism/usamricd/yellow_book_2000.pdf.
69. C Stewart and JB Sullivan Jr (1992) Military munitions and antipersonnel agents. Sullivan JB, Jr,GR Krieger (Eds) Hazardous Materials Toxicology: Clinical Principles of Environmental Health Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins 986.
70. AG Macintyre, GW Christopher, E Eitzen Jr, et al. (2000) Weapons of mass destruction events with contaminated casualties: effective planning for health care facilities. JAMA 283(2), 242-249.
71. FR Sidell and J Borak (1992) Chemical warfare agents. II. Nerve agents. Ann Emerg Med 21(7), 865-871.
72. DC Wetter, WE Daniell and CD Treser (2001) Hospital preparedness for victims of chemical or biological terrorism. Am J Public Health 91(5), 710-716.
73. Agency for Toxic Substances Disease Registry: Appendix C: levels of protection. In Managing Hazardous Materials Incidents, Vol. II: Hospital Emergency Departments, 2001, www.atsdr.cdc.gov/mhmi-v2-c.pdf.
74. University of Oxford: Acute organophosphate pesticide poisoning in Sri Lanka: management, complications, and pharmacogenetics, 2004.
75. Eddleston M, et al: Emergency management of acute severe self-poisoning with an unknown pesticide. 1. A protocol. South Asian Clinical Toxicology Research Collaborative, 2004, p 1. Personal communication.
76. PT Choi, LG Quinonez, DJ Cook, et al. (1998) The use of glycopyrrolate in a case of intermediate syndrome following acute organophosphate poisoning. Can J Anaesth 45(4), 337-340.
77. PG Bardin and SF Van Eeden (1990) Organophosphate poisoning: grading the severity and comparing treatment between atropine and glycopyrrolate. Crit Care Med 18(9), 956-960.
78. J Kanto and U Klotz (1988) Pharmacokinetic implications for the clinical use of atropine, scopolamine and glycopyrrolate. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 32(2), 69-78.
79. WM Lau (1993) Protection by tacrine and some adjuncts against the depressant effects of soman in guinea-pig atrium. Gen Pharmacol 24(6), 1513-1519.
80. U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense (1999) Nerve agents. In Medical Management of Chemical Casualties Handbook Aberdeen, MD: Aberdeen Proving Grounds—Edgewood Area
81. MA Dunn (1989) Progress in medical defense against nerve agents. JAMA 262 649.
82. Cherian AM, et al: Effectiveness of pralidoxime in the treatment of organophosphorus poisoning: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. In International Clinical Epidemiology Network (ed): Monograph series on Critical International Health Issues, 1997, http//www.inclentrust.org/images/stories/mono7_organophosphorus_poisoning[1].pdf.
83. AM Cherian, et al. (1997) Effectiveness of P2AM (PAM-pralidoxime) in the treatment of organophosphorus poisoning. A randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled trial. J Assoc Physicians India 45 22-24.
84. M Sungur (2001) Intensive care management of organophosphate insecticide poisoning. Crit Care 5(4), 211-215.
85. HJ de Silva, R Wijewickrema and N Senanayake (1992) Does pralidoxime affect outcome of management in acute organophosphorus poisoning? Lancet 339(8802), 1136-1138.
86. R Jovic and B Boskovic (1970) Antidotal action of pyridinium oximes in poisoning by O,O-diethyl-S-(2-(N-methyl-N-phenylamino)ethyl) thiophosphonate methylsulfomethylate (GT-45) and its two new analogs. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 16(1), 194-200.
87. PH Kurtz (1990) Pralidoxime in the treatment of carbamate intoxication. Am J Emerg Med 8(1), 68-70.
88. G Petroianu and R Ruefer (2001) Poisoning with organophosphorus compounds. Emerg Med (Fremantle) 13(2), 258-260.
89. TM Shih (1993) Comparison of several oximes on reactivation of soman-inhibited blood, brain and tissue cholinesterase activity in rats. Arch Toxicol 67(9), 637-646.
90. V Simeon, K Wilhelm, A Granov, et al. (1979) 1,3-Bispyridinium-dimethylether mono- and dioximes: synthesis, reactivating potency and therapeutic effect in experimental poisoning by organophosphorus compounds. Arch Toxicol 41(4), 301-306.
91. JA Vale (1998) Toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic aspects of organophosphorus (OP) insecticide poisoning. Toxicol Lett 102–103 649-652.
92. TM Shih and JH McDonough Jr (1999) Organophosphorus nerve agents-induced seizures and efficacy of atropine sulfate as anticonvulsant treatment. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 64(1), 147-153.
93. LW Harris, BG Talbot, WJ Lennox and DR Anderson (1989) The relationship between oxime-induced reactivation of carbamylated acetylcholinesterase and antidotal efficacy against carbamate intoxication. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 98(1), 128-133.
94. RM Dawson (1994) Rate constants of carbamylation and decarbamylation of acetylcholinesterase for physostigmine and carbaryl in the presence of an oxime. Neurochem Int 24(2), 173-182.
95. M Lotti (1991) Treatment of acute organophosphate poisoning. Med J Aust 154(1), 51-55.
96. SH Sterri, B Rognerud, SE Fiskum and S Lyngaas (1979) Effect of toxogonin and P2S on the toxicity of carbamates and organophosphorus compounds. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) 45(1), 9-15.
97. CN Lieske, JH Clark, DM Maxwell, et al. (1992) Studies of the amplification of carbaryl toxicity by various oximes. Toxicol Lett 62(2–3), 127-137.
98. S Schexnayder, LP James, GL Kearns, HC Farrar, et al. (1998) The pharmacokinetics of continuous infusion pralidoxime in children with organophosphate poisoning. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 36(6), 549-555.
99. A Sundwall (1961) Minimum concentrations of N-methylpyridinium-2-aldoxime methane sulphonate (P2S) which reverse neuromuscular block. Biochem Pharmacol 8 413-417.
100. JJ Medicis, CM Stork, MA Howland, et al. (1996) Pharmacokinetics following a loading plus a continuous infusion of pralidoxime compared with the traditional short infusion regimen in human volunteers. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 34(3), 289-295.
101. H Thiermann, L Szinicz, F Eyer, et al. (1999) Modern strategies in therapy of organophosphate poisoning. Toxicol Lett 107(1–3), 233-239.
102. H Thiermann, U Mast, R Klimmek, et al. (1997) Cholinesterase status, pharmacokinetics and laboratory findings during obidoxime therapy in organophosphate poisoned patients. Hum Exp Toxicol 16(8), 473-480.
103. JL Willems, HC De Bisschop, AG Verstraete, et al. (1993) Cholinesterase reactivation in organophosphorus poisoned patients depends on the plasma concentrations of the oxime pralidoxime methylsulphate and of the organophosphate. Arch Toxicol 67(2), 79-84.
104. Feldmann RJ, Szajewski J: Cholinergic syndrome. In International Programme on Chemical Safety Poison Information Database Management Databank, 1998.
105. DF Thompson, GD Thompson, RB Greenwood and HL Trammell (1987) Therapeutic dosing of pralidoxime chloride. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 21(7–8), 590-593.
106. B Bailey (2003) Are there teratogenic risks associated with antidotes used in the acute management of poisoned pregnant women? Birth Defects Res Part A Clin Mol Teratol 67(2), 133-140.
107. B Bailey (1997) Organophosphate poisoning in pregnancy. Ann Emerg Med 29(2), 299.
108. JS Rotenberg and J Newmark (2003) Nerve agent attacks on children: diagnosis and management. Pediatrics 112(3 Pt 1), 648-658.
109. U.S. Food and Drug Administration: FDA approves pediatric doses of AtroPen. Available at http://www.fda.gov.
110. Massachusetts Department of Public Health Office of Emergency Medical Services: Nerve agent exposure protocol. In Emergency Medical Services Pre-Hospital Treatment Protocols, 5th ed, version 5.1, January 1, 2004, http://www.cmemsc.org/protocols-state/wmd-protocols-intro.pdf.
111. N Senanayake and L Karalliedde (1987) Neurotoxic effects of organophosphorus insecticides. An intermediate syndrome. N Engl J Med 316(13), 761-763.
112. J De Bleecker, K Van Den Neucker and J Willems (1992) The intermediate syndrome in organophosphate poisoning: presentation of a case and review of the literature. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 30(3), 321-329. discussion, 331–332.
113. M Karademir, F Erturk and R Kocak (1990) Two cases of organophosphate poisoning with development of intermediate syndrome. Hum Exp Toxicol 9(3), 187-189.
114. S Khan, R Hemalatha, L Jeyasselan, et al. (2001) Neuroparalysis and oxime efficacy in organophosphate poisoning: a study of butyrylcholinesterase. Hum Exp Toxicol 20(4), 169-174.
115. RJ Routier, J Lipman and K Brown (1989) Difficulty in weaning from respiratory support in a patient with the intermediate syndrome of organophosphate poisoning. Crit Care Med 17(10), 1075-1076.
116. KK Samal and CS Sahu (1990) Organophosphorus poisoning and intermediate neurotoxic syndrome. J Assoc Physicians India 38(2), 181-182.
117. SC Curry (1994) Organophosphate-associated “intermediate syndrome”: for real? AACT Clin Toxicol Update 7 1-2.
118. JL De Bleecker (1995) The intermediate syndrome in organophosphate poisoning: an overview of experimental and clinical observations. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 33(6), 683-686.
119. DL Sudakin, ME Mullins, BZ Horowitz, et al. (2000) Intermediate syndrome after malathion ingestion despite continuous infusion of pralidoxime. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 38(1), 47-50.
120. D Aygun, Z Doganay, L Altintop, et al. (2002) Serum acetylcholinesterase and prognosis of acute organophosphate poisoning. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 40(7), 903-910.
121. J De Bleecker, J Willems, K VanDen Neucker, et al. (1992) Prolonged toxicity with intermediate syndrome after combined parathion and methyl parathion poisoning. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 30(3), 333-345. discussion, 347–349.
122. JL De Bleecker (1993) Intermediate syndrome: prolonged cholinesterase inhibition. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 31(1), 197-199.
123. V De Wilde, D Vogelaers, F Colardyn, et al. (1991) Postsynaptic neuromuscular dysfunction in organophosphate induced intermediate syndrome. Klin Wochenschr 69(4), 177-183.
124. J De Bleecker, K Van den Abeele and J De Reuck (1994) Electromyog-raphy in relation to end-plate acetylcholinesterase in rats poisoned by different organophosphates. Neurotoxicology 15(2), 331-340.
125. M Jokanovic, PV Stukalov and M Kosanovic (2002) Organophosphate induced delayed polyneuropathy. Curr Drug Target CNS Neurol Disord 1(6), 593-602.
126. M Lotti, A Moretto, M Bertolazzi, et al. (1995) Organophosphate polyneuropathy and neuropathy target esterase: studies with methamidophos and its resolved optical isomers. Arch Toxicol 69(5), 330-336.
127. MK Johnson (1975) Organophosphorus esters causing delayed neurotoxic effects: mechanism of action and structure activity studies. Arch Toxicol 34(4), 259-288.
128. MK Johnson and P Glynn (1995) Neuropathy target esterase (NTE) and organophosphorus-induced delayed polyneuropathy (OPIDP): recent advances. Toxicol Lett 82–83 459-863.
129. ML Weiner and BS Jortner (1999) Organophosphate-induced delayed neurotoxicity of triarylphosphates. Neurotoxicology 20(4), 653-673.
130. L Gutmann and JB Bodensteiner (1993) Organophosphate-induced delayed polyneuropathy. J Pediatr 123(5), 837.
131. M Lotti (1991) The pathogenesis of organophosphate polyneuropathy. Crit Rev Toxicol 21(6), 465-487.
132. M Lotti, CE Becker and MJ Aminoff (1984) Organophosphate polyneuropathy: pathogenesis and prevention. Neurology 34(5), 658-662.
133. S Singh and N Sharma (2000) Neurological syndromes following organophosphate poisoning. Neurol India 48(4), 308-313.
134. MB Abou-Donia (1983) Toxicokinetics and metabolism of delayed neurotoxic organophosphorus esters. Neurotoxicology 4(1), 113-129.
135. RL Metcalf (1982) Historical perspective of organophosphorus ester-induced delayed neurotoxicity. Neurotoxicology 3(4), 269-284.
136. RS Wadia, S Chitra, RB Amin, et al. (1987) Electrophysiological studies in acute organophosphate poisoning. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 50(11), 1442-1448.
137. D Bertoncin, A Russolo, S Caroldi and M Loth (1985) Neuropathy target esterase in human lymphocytes. Arch Environ Health 40(3), 139-144.
138. M Lotti, A Moretto, R Zoppellari, et al. (1986) Inhibition of lymphocytic neuropathy target esterase predicts the development of organophosphate-induced delayed polyneuropathy. Arch Toxicol 59(3), 176-179.
139. E Shahar and J Andraws (2001) Extrapyramidal parkinsonism complicating organophosphate insecticide poisoning. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 5(6), 261-264.
140. N Senanayake and PS Sanmuganathan (1995) Extrapyramidal manifestations complicating organophosphorus insecticide poisoning. Hum Exp Toxicol 14 600-604.
141. L Rosenstock, W Daniell, S Burnhart, et al. (1990) Chronic neuropsychological sequelae of occupational exposure to organophosphate insecticides. Am J Ind Med 18(3), 321-325.
142. L Rosenstock, M Keifer, WE Daniell, et al. (1991) Chronic central nervous system effects of acute organophosphate pesticide intoxication. The Pesticide Health Effects Study Group. Lancet 338(8761), 223-227.
143. K Steenland, B Jenkins, RG Ames, et al. (1994) Chronic neurological sequelae to organophosphate pesticide poisoning. Am J Public Health 84(5), 731-736.
144. RS Wadia (1990) The neurology of organophosphorus insecticide poisoning newer findings a view point. J Assoc Physicians India 38(2), 129-131.
145. FM Raushel (2002) Bacterial detoxification of organophosphate nerve agents. Curr Opin Microbiol 5 288-295.
146. FM Raushel and HM Holden (2000) Phosphotriesterase: an enzyme in search of its natural substrate. Adv Enzymol Relat Areas Mol Biol 74 51-93.
147. K Tuovinen, E Kaliste-Korhonen, FM Raushel and O Hanninen (1994) Phosphotriesterase—a promising candidate for use in detoxification of organophosphates. Fundam Appl Toxicol 23 578-584.
148. P Berwick (1970) 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid poisoning in man. Some interesting clinical and laboratory findings. JAMA 214(6), 1114-1117.
149. LP de Jong, MA Verhagen, JP Langenberg, et al. (1989) The bispyridinium-dioxime HLo-7. A potent reactivator for acetylcholinesterase inhibited by the stereoisomers of tabun and soman. Biochem Pharmacol 38(4), 633-640.
150. LP de Jong and GZ Wolring (1984) Stereospecific reactivation by some Hagedorn-oximes of acetylcholinesterases from various species including man, inhibited by soman. Biochem Pharmacol 33(7), 1119-1125.
151. I Hagedorn, WH Gundel and K Schoene (1969) Reactivation of phosphorylated acetylcholine esterase with oximes: contribution to the study of the reaction course. Arzneimittelforschung 19(4), 603-606.
152. D Kuhnen-Clausen, I Hagedorn, G Gross, et al. (1983) Interactions of bisquaternary pyridine salts (H-oximes) with cholinergic receptors. Arch Toxicol 54(3), 171-179.
153. M Balai-Mood, MH Ayati and H Ali-Akbarian (2005) Effect of high doses of sodium bicarbonate in acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. Clin Toxicol 43(6), 571-574.
154. M Roberts and NA Buckley (2005) Alkalinisation for organophosphorus pesticide poisoning: A review. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD004897.
155. Y Ashani, H Leader, N Rothschild and C Dosoretz (1998) Combined effect of organophosphorus hydrolase and oxime on the reactivation rate of diethylphosphoryl-acetylcholinesterase conjugates. Biochem Pharmacol 55(2), 159-168.
156. Y Ashani, N Rothschild, Y Segall, et al. (1991) Prophylaxis against organophosphate poisoning by an enzyme hydrolysing organophosphorus compounds in mice. Life Sci 49(5), 367-374.
157. L Raveh, Y Segall, H Leader, et al. (1992) Protection against tabun toxicity in mice by prophylaxis with an enzyme hydrolyzing organophosphate esters. Biochem Pharmacol 44(2), 397-400.
158. L Raveh, J Grunwald, D Marcus, et al. (1993) Human butyrylcholinesterase as a general prophylactic antidote for nerve agent toxicity. In vitro and in vivo quantitative characterization. Biochem Pharmacol 45(12), 2465-2474.
159. M Guven, M Sungur, B Eser, et al. (2004) The effects of fresh frozen plasma on cholinesterase levels and outcomes in patients with organophosphate poisoning. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42(5), 617-623.