Chapter 1: Definition and classification of CKD

Kidney International Supplements

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 19-62

[No Author Info available]

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85090988675     PISSN: 21571724     EISSN: 21571716     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/kisup.2012.64     Document Type: Article

References (208)

1. Astor, B.C., Matsushita, K., Gansevoort, R.T., et al. Lower estimated glomerular filtration rate and higher albuminuria are associated with mortality and end-stage renal disease. A collaborative meta-analysis of kidney disease population cohorts. Kidney Int 79 (2011), 1331–1340.
2. Gansevoort, R.T., Matsushita, K., van der Velde, M., et al. Lower estimated GFR and higher albuminuria are associated with adverse kidney outcomes. A collaborative meta-analysis of general and high-risk population cohorts. Kidney Int 80 (2011), 93–104.
3. Matsushita, K., van der Velde, M., Astor, B.C., et al. Association of estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in general population cohorts: a collaborative meta-analysis. Lancet 375 (2010), 2073–2081.
4. van der Velde, M., Matsushita, K., Coresh, J., et al. Lower estimated glomerular filtration rate and higher albuminuria are associated with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. A collaborative meta-analysis of high-risk population cohorts. Kidney Int 79 (2011), 1341–1352.
5. Hsu, C.Y., Ordonez, J.D., Chertow, G.M., et al. The risk of acute renal failure in patients with chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 74 (2008), 101–107.
6. Hailpern, S.M., Melamed, M.L., Cohen, H.W., et al. Moderate chronic kidney disease and cognitive function in adults 20 to 59 years of age: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Am Soc Nephrol 18 (2007), 2205–2213.
7. James, M.T., Hemmelgarn, B.R., Wiebe, N., et al. Glomerular filtration rate, proteinuria, and the incidence and consequences of acute kidney injury: a cohort study. Lancet 376 (2010), 2096–2103.
8. James, M.T., Quan, H., Tonelli, M., et al. CKD and risk of hospitalization and death with pneumonia. Am J Kidney Dis 54 (2009), 24–32.
9. Wilhelm-Leen, E.R., Hall, Y.N., M, K.T., et al. Frailty and chronic kidney disease: the Third National Health and Nutrition Evaluation Survey. Am J Med 122 (2009), 664–671 e662.
10. Levey, A.S., Coresh, J., Chronic kidney disease. Lancet 379 (2012), 165–180.
11. Wesson, L., Physiology of the human kidney, 1969, Grune & Stratton, New York.
12. Rowe, J.W., Andres, R., Tobin, J.D., Letter: Age-adjusted standards for creatinine clearance. Ann Intern Med 84 (1976), 567–569.
13. Poggio, E.D., Rule, A.D., Tanchanco, R., et al. Demographic and clinical characteristics associated with glomerular filtration rates in living kidney donors. Kidney Int 75 (2009), 1079–1087.
14. Rule, A.D., Amer, H., Cornell, L.D., et al. The association between age and nephrosclerosis on renal biopsy among healthy adults. Ann Intern Med 152 (2010), 561–567.
15. Barai, S., Gambhir, S., Prasad, N., et al. Levels of GFR and protein-induced hyperfiltration in kidney donors: a single-center experience in India. Am J Kidney Dis 51 (2008), 407–414.
16. Eastwood, J.B., Kerry, S.M., Plange-Rhule, J., et al. Assessment of GFR by four methods in adults in Ashanti, Ghana: the need for an eGFR equation for lean African populations. Nephrol Dial Transplant 25 (2010), 2178–2187.
17. Jafar, T.H., Islam, M., Jessani, S., et al. Level and determinants of kidney function in a South Asian population in Pakistan. Am J Kidney Dis 58 (2011), 764–772.
18. Stevens, L.A., Coresh, J., Greene, T., et al. Assessing kidney function–measured and estimated glomerular filtration rate. N Engl J Med 354 (2006), 2473–2483.
19. Remuzzi, G., Benigni, A., Remuzzi, A., Mechanisms of progression and regression of renal lesions of chronic nephropathies and diabetes. J Clin Invest 116 (2006), 288–296.
20. KDIGO Transplant Work Group., KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the care of kidney transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 9:Suppl 3 (2009), S1–155.
21. Levey, A.S., de Jong, P.E., Coresh, J., et al. The definition, classification, and prognosis of chronic kidney disease: a KDIGO Controversies Conference report. Kidney Int 80 (2011), 17–28.
22. Levey, A.S., Eckardt, K.U., Tsukamoto, Y., et al. Definition and classification of chronic kidney disease: a position statement from Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). Kidney Int 67 (2005), 2089–2100.
23. Eckardt, K.U., Berns, J.S., Rocco, M.V., et al. Definition and classification of CKD: the debate should be about patient prognosis–a position statement from KDOQI and KDIGO. Am J Kidney Dis 53 (2009), 915–920.
24. Eknoyan, G., Chronic kidney disease definition and classification: no need for a rush to judgment. Kidney Int 75 (2009), 1015–1018.
25. El Nahas, M., Cardio-Kidney-Damage: a unifying concept. Kidney Int 78 (2010), 14–18.
26. Levey, A.S., Astor, B.C., Stevens, L.A., et al. Chronic kidney disease, diabetes, and hypertension: what's in a name?. Kidney Int 78 (2010), 19–22.
27. Winearls, C.G., Glassock, R.J., Dissecting and refining the staging of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 75 (2009), 1009–1014.
28. Silva, F.G., The aging kidney: a review – part I. Int Urol Nephrol 37 (2005), 185–205.
29. Silva, F.G., The aging kidney: a review–part II. Int Urol Nephrol 37 (2005), 419–432.
30. Weinstein, J.R., Anderson, S., The aging kidney: physiological changes. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 17 (2010), 302–307.
31. King, A.J., Levey, A.S., Dietary protein and renal function. J Am Soc Nephrol 3 (1993), 1723–1737.
32. Vehaskari, V.M., Orthostatic proteinuria. Arch Dis Child 57 (1982), 729–730.
33. Seikaly, M.G., Ho, P.L., Emmett, L., et al. Chronic renal insufficiency in children: the 2001 Annual Report of the NAPRTCS. Pediatr Nephrol 18 (2003), 796–804.
34. Hogg, R.J., Furth, S., Lemley, K.V., et al. National Kidney Foundation's Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease in children and adolescents: evaluation, classification, and stratification. Pediatrics 111 (2003), 1416–1421.
35. Schwartz, G.J., Brion, L.P., Spitzer, A., The use of plasma creatinine concentration for estimating glomerular filtration rate in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatr Clin North Am 34 (1987), 571–590.
36. Aperia, A., Broberger, O., Elinder, G., et al. Postnatal development of renal function in pre-term and full-term infants. Acta Paediatr Scand 70 (1981), 183–187.
37. Bueva, A., Guignard, J.P., Renal function in preterm neonates. Pediatr Res 36 (1994), 572–577.
38. Fetterman, G.H., Shuplock, N.A., Philipp, F.J., et al. The Growth and Maturation of Human Glomeruli and Proximal Convolutions from Term to Adulthood: Studies by Microdissection. Pediatrics 35 (1965), 601–619.
39. Guignard, J.P., Torrado, A., Da Cunha, O., et al. Glomerular filtration rate in the first three weeks of life. J Pediatr 87 (1975), 268–272.
40. Haycock, G.B., Development of glomerular filtration and tubular sodium reabsorption in the human fetus and newborn. Br J Urol 81:Suppl 2 (1998), 33–38.
41. Gallini, F., Maggio, L., Romagnoli, C., et al. Progression of renal function in preterm neonates with gestational age < or = 32 weeks. Pediatr Nephrol 15 (2000), 119–124.
42. Vieux, R., Hascoet, J.M., Merdariu, D., et al. Glomerular filtration rate reference values in very preterm infants. Pediatrics 125 (2010), e1186–e1192.
43. Schwartz, G.J., Furth, S.L., Glomerular filtration rate measurement and estimation in chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 22 (2007), 1839–1848.
44. Waters, A.M., Chapter 6, Part 2: Functional development of the nephron. Comprehensive Pediatric Nephrology, In: Geary DF, Schaefer F (eds), 2008, Mosby Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA, 111–129.
45. Langlois, V., Laboratory evaluation at different ages. Comprehensive Pediatric Nephrology, In: Geary DF, Schaefer F (eds), 2008, Mosby Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA, 39–54.
46. Furth, S.L., Cole, S.R., Moxey-Mims, M., et al. Design and methods of the Chronic Kidney Disease in Children (CKiD) prospective cohort study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 1 (2006), 1006–1015.
47. Copelovitch, L., Warady, B.A., Furth, S.L., Insights from the Chronic Kidney Disease in Children (CKiD) study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6 (2011), 2047–2053.
48. Seliger, S.L., Zhan, M., Hsu, V.D., et al. Chronic kidney disease adversely influences patient safety. J Am Soc Nephrol 19 (2008), 2414–2419.
49. Go, A.S., Chertow, G.M., Fan, D., et al. Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. N Engl J Med 351 (2004), 1296–1305.
50. Coresh, J., Astor, B.C., Greene, T., et al. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease and decreased kidney function in the adult US population: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Kidney Dis 41 (2003), 1–12.
51. Burgert, T.S., Dziura, J., Yeckel, C., et al. Microalbuminuria in pediatric obesity: prevalence and relation to other cardiovascular risk factors. Int J Obes (Lond) 30 (2006), 273–280.
52. Csernus, K., Lanyi, E., Erhardt, E., et al. Effect of childhood obesity and obesity-related cardiovascular risk factors on glomerular and tubular protein excretion. Eur J Pediatr 164 (2005), 44–49.
53. Houser, M.T., Jahn, M.F., Kobayashi, A., et al. Assessment of urinary protein excretion in the adolescent: effect of body position and exercise. J Pediatr 109 (1986), 556–561.
54. Trachtenberg, F., Barregard, L., The effect of age, sex, and race on urinary markers of kidney damage in children. Am J Kidney Dis 50 (2007), 938–945.
55. Brem, A.S., Neonatal hematuria and proteinuria. Clin Perinatol 8 (1981), 321–332.
56. Hogg, R.J., Portman, R.J., Milliner, D., et al. Evaluation and management of proteinuria and nephrotic syndrome in children: recommendations from a pediatric nephrology panel established at the National Kidney Foundation conference on proteinuria, albuminuria, risk, assessment, detection, and elimination (PARADE). Pediatrics 105 (2000), 1242–1249.
57. Jones, C.A., Francis, M.E., Eberhardt, M.S., et al. Microalbuminuria in the US population: third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Kidney Dis 39 (2002), 445–459.
58. Levey, A.S., Coresh, J., Should the K/DOQI definition of chronic kidney disease be changed?. Am J Kidney Dis 42 (2003), 626–630.
59. Uhlig, K., Levey, A.S., Developing guidelines for chronic kidney disease: we should include all of the outcomes. Ann Intern Med 156 (2012), 599–601.
60. North American Pediatric Renal Trials and Collaborative Studies. NAPRTCS 2008 Annual Report. (https://web.emmes.com/study/ped/annlrept/Annual%20Report%20-2008.pdf). Accessed September 7, 2012.
61. Ardissino, G., Dacco, V., Testa, S., et al. Epidemiology of chronic renal failure in children: data from the ItalKid project. Pediatrics 111 (2003), e382–e387.
62. Pierce, C.B., Cox, C., Saland, J.M., et al. Methods for characterizing differences in longitudinal glomerular filtration rate changes between children with glomerular chronic kidney disease and those with nonglomerular chronic kidney disease. Am J Epidemiol 174 (2011), 604–612.
63. Furth, S.L., Abraham, A.G., Jerry-Fluker, J., et al. Metabolic abnormalities, cardiovascular disease risk factors, and GFR decline in children with chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6 (2011), 2132–2140.
64. Wingen, A.M., Fabian-Bach, C., Schaefer, F., et al. Randomised multicentre study of a low-protein diet on the progression of chronic renal failure in children. European Study Group of Nutritional Treatment of Chronic Renal Failure in Childhood. Lancet 349 (1997), 1117–1123.
65. Staples, A.O., Greenbaum, L.A., Smith, J.M., et al. Association between clinical risk factors and progression of chronic kidney disease in children. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5 (2010), 2172–2179.
66. Ardissino, G., Testa, S., Dacco, V., et al. Proteinuria as a predictor of disease progression in children with hypodysplastic nephropathy. Data from the Ital Kid Project. Pediatr Nephrol 19 (2004), 172–177.
67. Wong, C.S., Pierce, C.B., Cole, S.R., et al. Association of proteinuria with race, cause of chronic kidney disease, and glomerular filtration rate in the chronic kidney disease in children study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 4 (2009), 812–819.
68. Ardissino, G., Testa, S., Dacco, V., et al. Puberty is associated with increased deterioration of renal function in patients with CKD: data from the ItalKid Project. Arch Dis Child, 2012.
69. Querfeld, U., Anarat, A., Bayazit, A.K., et al. The Cardiovascular Comorbidity in Children with Chronic Kidney Disease (4C) study: objectives, design, and methodology. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5 (2010), 1642–1648.
70. Stevens, L.A., Levey, A.S., Measured GFR as a confirmatory test for estimated GFR. J Am Soc Nephrol 20 (2009), 2305–2313.
71. Schwartz, G.J., Munoz, A., Schneider, M.F., et al. New equations to estimate GFR in children with CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 20 (2009), 629–637.
72. Myers, G.L., Miller, W.G., Coresh, J., et al. Recommendations for improving serum creatinine measurement: a report from the Laboratory Working Group of the National Kidney Disease Education Program. Clin Chem 52 (2006), 5–18.
73. Miller, W.G., Estimating glomerular filtration rate. Clin Chem Lab Med 47 (2009), 1017–1019.
74. Kilpatrick, E.S., Verrill, H., A national audit of estimated glomerular filtration rate and proteinuria reporting in the UK. Ann Clin Biochem 48 (2011), 558–561.
75. McIntosh, J.F., Moller, E., Van Slyke, D.D., Studies of urea excretion. III: The influence of body size on urea output. J Clin Invest 6 (1928), 467–483.
76. Earley, A., Miskulin, D., Lamb, E.J., et al. Estimating equations for glomerular filtration rate in the era of creatinine standardization: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 156 (2012), 785–795.
77. Levey, A.S., Coresh, J., Greene, T., et al. Using standardized serum creatinine values in the modification of diet in renal disease study equation for estimating glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med 145 (2006), 247–254.
78. Levey, A.S., Stevens, L.A., Schmid, C.H., et al. A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med 150 (2009), 604–612.
79. Horio, M., Imai, E., Yasuda, Y., et al. Modification of the CKD epidemiology collaboration (CKD-EPI) equation for Japanese: accuracy and use for population estimates. Am J Kidney Dis 56 (2010), 32–38.
80. Imai, E., Horio, M., Nitta, K., et al. Estimation of glomerular filtration rate by the MDRD study equation modified for Japanese patients with chronic kidney disease. Clin Exp Nephrol 11 (2007), 41–50.
81. Praditpornsilpa, K., Townamchai, N., Chaiwatanarat, T., et al. The need for robust validation for MDRD-based glomerular filtration rate estimation in various CKD populations. Nephrol Dial Transplant 26 (2011), 2780–2785.
82. Matsuo, S., Imai, E., Horio, M., et al. Revised equations for estimated GFR from serum creatinine in Japan. Am J Kidney Dis 53 (2009), 982–992.
83. Levey, A.S., Greene, T., Kusek, J., et al. A simplified equation to predict glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine. J Am Soc Nephrol, 11, 2000, 155A.
84. Ma, Y.C., Zuo, L., Chen, J.H., et al. Modified glomerular filtration rate estimating equation for Chinese patients with chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 17 (2006), 2937–2944.
85. Levey, A.S., Bosch, J.P., Lewis, J.B., et al. A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Ann Intern Med 130 (1999), 461–470.
86. Murata, K., Baumann, N.A., Saenger, A.K., et al. Relative performance of the MDRD and CKD-EPI equations for estimating glomerular filtration rate among patients with varied clinical presentations. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6 (2011), 1963–1972.
87. Lane, B.R., Demirjian, S., Weight, C.J., et al. Performance of the chronic kidney disease-epidemiology study equations for estimating glomerular filtration rate before and after nephrectomy. J Urol 183 (2010), 896–901.
88. Michels, W.M., Grootendorst, D.C., Verduijn, M., et al. Performance of the Cockcroft-Gault, MDRD, and new CKD-EPI formulas in relation to GFR, age, and body size. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5 (2010), 1003–1009.
89. Tent, H., Rook, M., Stevens, L.A., et al. Renal function equations before and after living kidney donation: a within-individual comparison of performance at different levels of renal function. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5 (2010), 1960–1968.
90. Kukla, A., El-Shahawi, Y., Leister, E., et al. GFR-estimating models in kidney transplant recipients on a steroid-free regimen. Nephrol Dial Transplant 25 (2010), 1653–1661.
91. White, C.A., Akbari, A., Doucette, S., et al. Estimating glomerular filtration rate in kidney transplantation: is the new chronic kidney disease epidemiology collaboration equation any better?. Clin Chem 56 (2010), 474–477.
92. Poge, U., Gerhardt, T., Stoffel-Wagner, B., et al. Validation of the CKD-EPI formula in patients after renal transplantation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 26 (2011), 4104–4108.
93. Jones, G.R., Imam, S.K., Validation of the revised MDRD formula and the original Cockcroft and Gault formula for estimation of the glomerular filtration rate using Australian data. Pathology 41 (2009), 379–382.
94. Jones, G.R., Use of the CKD-EPI equation for estimation of GFR in an Australian cohort. Pathology 42 (2010), 487–488.
95. Cirillo, M., Lombardi, C., Luciano, M.G., et al. Estimation of GFR: a comparison of new and established equations. Am J Kidney Dis 56 (2010), 802–804.
96. Eriksen, B.O., Mathisen, U.D., Melsom, T., et al. Cystatin C is not a better estimator of GFR than plasma creatinine in the general population. Kidney Int 78 (2010), 1305–1311.
97. Redal-Baigorri, B., Stokholm, K.H., Rasmussen, K., et al. Estimation of kidney function in cancer patients. Dan Med Bull, 58, 2011, A4236.
98. Matsushita, K., Mahmoodi, B.K., Woodward, M., et al. Comparison of risk prediction using the CKD-EPI equation and the MDRD study equation for estimated glomerular filtration rate. JAMA 307 (2012), 1941–1951.
99. Rule, A.D., Teo, B.W., GFR estimation in Japan and China: what accounts for the difference?. Am J Kidney Dis 53 (2009), 932–935.
100. Stevens, L.A., Claybon, M.A., Schmid, C.H., et al. Evaluation of the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration equation for estimating the glomerular filtration rate in multiple ethnicities. Kidney Int 79 (2011), 555–562.
101. Yeo, Y., Han, D.J., Moon, D.H., et al. Suitability of the IDMS-traceable MDRD equation method to estimate GFR in early postoperative renal transplant recipients. Nephron Clin Pract 114 (2010), c108–c117.
102. van Deventer, H.E., George, J.A., Paiker, J.E., et al. Estimating glomerular filtration rate in black South Africans by use of the modification of diet in renal disease and Cockcroft-Gault equations. Clin Chem 54 (2008), 1197–1202.
103. Teo, B.W., Xu, H., Wang, D., et al. GFR estimating equations in a multiethnic Asian population. Am J Kidney Dis 58 (2011), 56–63.
104. Inker, L.A., Schmid, C.H., Tighiouart, H., et al. Estimating glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine and cystatin C. N Engl J Med 367 (2012), 20–29.
105. Peralta, C.A., Shlipak, M.G., Judd, S., et al. Detection of chronic kidney disease with creatinine, cystatin C, and urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio and association with progression to end-stage renal disease and mortality. JAMA 305 (2011), 1545–1552.
106. Schwartz, G.J., Schneider, M.F., Maier, P.S., et al. Improved equations estimating GFR in children with chronic kidney disease using an immunonephelometric determination of cystatin C. Kidney Int, 2012.
107. Inker, L.A., Eckfeldt, J., Levey, A.S., et al. Expressing the CKD-EPI (Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration) cystatin C equations for estimating GFR with standardized serum cystatin C values. Am J Kidney Dis 58 (2011), 682–684.
108. Stevens, L.A., Coresh, J., Schmid, C.H., et al. Estimating GFR using serum cystatin C alone and in combination with serum creatinine: a pooled analysis of 3,418 individuals with CKD. Am J Kidney Dis 51 (2008), 395–406.
109. Zappitelli, M., Parvex, P., Joseph, L., et al. Derivation and validation of cystatin C-based prediction equations for GFR in children. Am J Kidney Dis 48 (2006), 221–230.
110. Filler, G., Lepage, N., Should the Schwartz formula for estimation of GFR be replaced by cystatin C formula?. Pediatr Nephrol 18 (2003), 981–985.
111. Hoek, F.J., Kemperman, F.A., Krediet, R.T., A comparison between cystatin C, plasma creatinine and the Cockcroft and Gault formula for the estimation of glomerular filtration rate. Nephrol Dial Transplant 18 (2003), 2024–2031.
112. Kwong, Y.T., Stevens, L.A., Selvin, E., et al. Imprecision of urinary iothalamate clearance as a gold-standard measure of GFR decreases the diagnostic accuracy of kidney function estimating equations. Am J Kidney Dis 56 (2010), 39–49.
113. Lamb, E.J., Price, C.P., Kidney function tests. Tietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, 2012, Elsevier, 669–708 eds Burtis CA, Ashwood E, Bruns DE. 5th edition.
114. Ballantyne, F.C., Gibbons, J., O'Reilly, D.S., Urine albumin should replace total protein for the assessment of glomerular proteinuria. Ann Clin Biochem 30:Pt 1 (1993), 101–103.
115. Lamb, E.J., MacKenzie, F., Stevens, P.E., How should proteinuria be detected and measured?. Ann Clin Biochem 46 (2009), 205–217.
116. Newman, D.J., Thakkar, H., Medcalf, E.A., et al. Use of urine albumin measurement as a replacement for total protein. Clin Nephrol 43 (1995), 104–109.
117. Hallan, S.I., Ritz, E., Lydersen, S., et al. Combining GFR and albuminuria to classify CKD improves prediction of ESRD. J Am Soc Nephrol 20 (2009), 1069–1077.
118. Brantsma, A.H., Bakker, S.J., Hillege, H.L., et al. Cardiovascular and renal outcome in subjects with K/DOQI stage 1–3 chronic kidney disease: the importance of urinary albumin excretion. Nephrol Dial Transplant 23 (2008), 3851–3858.
119. Dawnay, A., Wilson, A.G., Lamb, E., et al. Microalbuminuria in systemic sclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis 51 (1992), 384–388.
120. Gross, J.L., de Azevedo, M.J., Silveiro, S.P., et al. Diabetic nephropathy: diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. Diabetes Care 28 (2005), 164–176.
121. Ninomiya, T., Perkovic, V., de Galan, B.E., et al. Albuminuria and kidney function independently predict cardiovascular and renal outcomes in diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol 20 (2009), 1813–1821.
122. Shihabi, Z.K., Konen, J.C., O'Connor, M.L., Albuminuria vs urinary total protein for detecting chronic renal disorders. Clin Chem 37 (1991), 621–624.
123. Martin, H., Laboratory measurement of urine albumin and urine total protein in screening for proteinuria in chronic kidney disease. Clin Biochem Rev 32 (2011), 97–102.
124. Waugh, J., Bell, S.C., Kilby, M., et al. Effect of concentration and biochemical assay on the accuracy of urine dipsticks in hypertensive pregnancies. Hypertens Pregnancy 20 (2001), 205–217.
125. Waugh, J., Bell, S.C., Kilby, M.D., et al. Urine protein estimation in hypertensive pregnancy: which thresholds and laboratory assay best predict clinical outcome?. Hypertens Pregnancy 24 (2005), 291–302.
126. McElderry, L.A., Tarbit, I.F., Cassells-Smith, A.J., Six methods for urinary protein compared. Clin Chem 28 (1982), 356–360.
127. Nishi, H.H., Elin, R.J., Three turbidimetric methods for determining total protein compared. Clin Chem 31 (1985), 1377–1380.
128. Sedmak, J.J., Grossberg, S.E., A rapid, sensitive, and versatile assay for protein using Coomassie brilliant blue G250. Anal Biochem 79 (1977), 544–552.
129. de Keijzer, M.H., Klasen, I.S., Branten, A.J., et al. Infusion of plasma expanders may lead to unexpected results in urinary protein assays. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 59 (1999), 133–137.
130. Marshall, T., Williams, K.M., Extent of aminoglycoside interference in the pyrogallol red-molybdate protein assay depends on the concentration of sodium oxalate in the dye reagent. Clin Chem 50 (2004), 934–935.
131. Yilmaz, F.M., Yucel, D., Effect of addition of hemolysate on urine and cerebrospinal fluid assays for protein. Clin Chem 52 (2006), 152–153.
132. Chambers, R.E., Bullock, D.G., Whicher, J.T., External quality assessment of total urinary protein estimation in the United Kingdom. Ann Clin Biochem 28:Pt 5 (1991), 467–473.
133. Heick, H.M., Begin-Heick, N., Acharya, C., et al. Automated determination of urine and cerebrospinal fluid proteins with Coomassie Brilliant Blue and the Abbott ABA-100. Clin Biochem 13 (1980), 81–83.
134. Marshall, T., Williams, K.M., Total protein determination in urine: elimination of a differential response between the coomassie blue and pyrogallol red protein dye-binding assays. Clin Chem 46 (2000), 392–398.
135. Miller, W.G., Urine albumin: Recommendations for standardization. Scand J Clin Lab Invest Suppl 241 (2008), 71–72.
136. Miller, W.G., Bruns, D.E., Hortin, G.L., et al. Current issues in measurement and reporting of urinary albumin excretion. Clin Chem 55 (2009), 24–38.
137. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. MHRA 04086 Point of care devices for the quantitation of microalbuminuria. 2004.
138. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. MHRA 04098. Point of care devices for the detection and semi-quantitation of microalbuminuria. 2004.
139. Parsons, M., Newman, D.J., Pugia, M., et al. Performance of a reagent strip device for quantitation of the urine albumin: creatinine ratio in a point of care setting. Clin Nephrol 51 (1999), 220–227.
140. Parsons, M.P., Newman, D.J., Newall, R.G., et al. Validation of a point-of-care assay for the urinary albumin:creatinine ratio. Clin Chem 45 (1999), 414–417.
141. Graziani, M.S., Gambaro, G., Mantovani, L., et al. Diagnostic accuracy of a reagent strip for assessing urinary albumin excretion in the general population. Nephrol Dial Transplant 24 (2009), 1490–1494.
142. Guy, M., Newall, R., Borzomato, J., et al. Diagnostic accuracy of the urinary albumin: creatinine ratio determined by the CLINITEK Microalbumin and DCA 2000+ for the rule-out of albuminuria in chronic kidney disease. Clin Chim Acta 399 (2009), 54–58.
143. Waugh, J.J., Bell, S.C., Kilby, M.D., et al. Optimal bedside urinalysis for the detection of proteinuria in hypertensive pregnancy: a study of diagnostic accuracy. BJOG 112 (2005), 412–417.
144. Iseki, K., Iseki, C., Ikemiya, Y., et al. Risk of developing end-stage renal disease in a cohort of mass screening. Kidney Int 49 (1996), 800–805.
145. Kaplan, R.E., Springate, J.E., Feld, L.G., Screening dipstick urinalysis: a time to change. Pediatrics 100 (1997), 919–921.
146. Kitagawa, T., Lessons learned from the Japanese nephritis screening study. Pediatr Nephrol 2 (1988), 256–263.
147. Boulware, L.E., Jaar, B.G., Tarver-Carr, M.E., et al. Screening for proteinuria in US adults: a cost-effectiveness analysis. JAMA 290 (2003), 3101–3114.
148. Bowie, L., Smith, S., Gochman, N., Characteristics of binding between reagent-strip indicators and urinary proteins. Clin Chem 23 (1977), 128–130.
149. Gyure, W.L., Comparison of several methods for semiquantitative determination of urinary protein. Clin Chem 23 (1977), 876–879.
150. James, G.P., Bee, D.E., Fuller, J.B., Proteinuria: accuracy and precision of laboratory diagnosis by dip-stick analysis. Clin Chem 24 (1978), 1934–1939.
151. Rumley, A., Urine dipstick testing: comparison of results obtained by visual reading and with the Bayer CLINITEK 50. Ann Clin Biochem 37:Pt 2 (2000), 220–221.
152. Scotti da Silva-Colombeli, A., Falkenberg, M., Analytical interferences of drugs in the chemical examination of urinary protein. Clin Biochem 40 (2007), 1074–1076.
153. Ralston, S.H., Caine, N., Richards, I., et al. Screening for proteinuria in a rheumatology clinic: comparison of dipstick testing, 24 h urine quantitative protein, and protein/creatinine ratio in random urine samples. Ann Rheum Dis 47 (1988), 759–763.
154. Waugh, J.J., Clark, T.J., Divakaran, T.G., et al. Accuracy of urinalysis dipstick techniques in predicting significant proteinuria in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 103 (2004), 769–777.
155. White, S.L., Yu, R., Craig, J.C., et al. Diagnostic accuracy of urine dipsticks for detection of albuminuria in the general community. Am J Kidney Dis 58 (2011), 19–28.
156. Saudan, P.J., Brown, M.A., Farrell, T., et al. Improved methods of assessing proteinuria in hypertensive pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 104 (1997), 1159–1164.
157. Beetham, R., Cattell, W.R., Proteinuria: pathophysiology, significance and recommendations for measurement in clinical practice. Ann Clin Biochem 30:Pt 5 (1993), 425–434.
158. Keane, W.F., Eknoyan, G., Proteinuria, albuminuria, risk, assessment, detection, elimination (PARADE): a position paper of the National Kidney Foundation. Am J Kidney Dis 33 (1999), 1004–1010.
159. Claudi, T., Cooper, J.G., Comparison of urinary albumin excretion rate in overnight urine and albumin creatinine ratio in spot urine in diabetic patients in general practice. Scand J Prim Health Care 19 (2001), 247–248.
160. Gatling, W., Knight, C., Mullee, M.A., et al. Microalbuminuria in diabetes: a population study of the prevalence and an assessment of three screening tests. Diabet Med 5 (1988), 343–347.
161. Hutchison, A.S., O'Reilly, D.S., MacCuish, A.C., Albumin excretion rate, albumin concentration, and albumin/creatinine ratio compared for screening diabetics for slight albuminuria. Clin Chem 34 (1988), 2019–2021.
162. Marshall, S.M., Screening for microalbuminuria: which measurement?. Diabet Med 8 (1991), 706–711.
163. Marshall, S.M., Alberti, K.G., Screening for early diabetic nephropathy. Ann Clin Biochem 23:Pt 2 (1986), 195–197.
164. Chitalia, V.C., Kothari, J., Wells, E.J., et al. Cost-benefit analysis and prediction of 24-hour proteinuria from the spot urine protein-creatinine ratio. Clin Nephrol 55 (2001), 436–447.
165. Cote, A.M., Brown, M.A., Lam, E., et al. Diagnostic accuracy of urinary spot protein:creatinine ratio for proteinuria in hypertensive pregnant women: systematic review. BMJ 336 (2008), 1003–1006.
166. Dyson, E.H., Will, E.J., Davison, A.M., et al. Use of the urinary protein creatinine index to assess proteinuria in renal transplant patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 7 (1992), 450–452.
167. Ginsberg, J.M., Chang, B.S., Matarese, R.A., et al. Use of single voided urine samples to estimate quantitative proteinuria. N Engl J Med 309 (1983), 1543–1546.
168. Leanos-Miranda, A., Marquez-Acosta, J., Romero-Arauz, F., et al. Protein:creatinine ratio in random urine samples is a reliable marker of increased 24-hour protein excretion in hospitalized women with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Clin Chem 53 (2007), 1623–1628.
169. Lemann, J. Jr, Doumas, B.T., Proteinuria in health and disease assessed by measuring the urinary protein/creatinine ratio. Clin Chem 33 (1987), 297–299.
170. Ruggenenti, P., Gaspari, F., Perna, A., et al. Cross sectional longitudinal study of spot morning urine protein:creatinine ratio, 24 h urine protein excretion rate, glomerular filtration rate, and end stage renal failure in chronic renal disease in patients without diabetes. BMJ 316 (1998), 504–509.
171. Pugliese, G., Solini, A., Fondelli, C., et al. Reproducibility of albuminuria in type 2 diabetic subjects. Findings from the Renal Insufficiency And Cardiovascular Events (RIACE) study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 26 (2011), 3950–3954.
172. Newman, D.J., Pugia, M.J., Lott, J.A., et al. Urinary protein and albumin excretion corrected by creatinine and specific gravity. Clin Chim Acta 294 (2000), 139–155.
173. Howey, J.E., Browning, M.C., Fraser, C.G., Selecting the optimum specimen for assessing slight albuminuria, and a strategy for clinical investigation: novel uses of data on biological variation. Clin Chem 33 (1987), 2034–2038.
174. Carter, J.L., Tomson, C.R., Stevens, P.E., et al. Does urinary tract infection cause proteinuria or microalbuminuria? A systematic review. Nephrol Dial Transplant 21 (2006), 3031–3037.
175. Heathcote, K.L., Wilson, M.P., Quest, D.W., et al. Prevalence and duration of exercise induced albuminuria in healthy people. Clin Invest Med 32 (2009), E261–E265.
176. Leung, A.K., Wong, A.H., Proteinuria in children. Am Fam Physician 82 (2010), 645–651.
177. Boger, C.A., Chen, M.H., Tin, A., et al. CUBN is a gene locus for albuminuria. J Am Soc Nephrol 22 (2011), 555–570.
178. Price, C.P., Newall, R.G., Boyd, J.C., Use of protein:creatinine ratio measurements on random urine samples for prediction of significant proteinuria: a systematic review. Clin Chem 51 (2005), 1577–1586.
179. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. NICE clinical guideline 73. Chronic kidney disease: early identification and management of chronic kidney disease in adults in primary and secondary care. 2008.
180. Montanes Bermudez, R., Gracia Garcia, S., Perez Surribas, D., et al. Consensus document. Recommendations on assessing proteinuria during the diagnosis and follow-up of chronic kidney disease. Nefrologia 31 (2011), 331–345.
181. Johnson, D.W., Jones, G.R., Mathew, T.H., et al. Chronic kidney disease and measurement of albuminuria or proteinuria: a position statement. Med J Aust 197 (2012), 224–225.
182. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. Guideline 103. Diagnosis and management of chronic kidney disease. 2008.
183. Caring for Australasians with Renal Impairment. http://www.cari.org.au/guidelines.php.
184. Clarke, W., Frost, S.J., Kraus, E., et al. Renal function testing. Evidence-based Practice for Point-of-Care Testing, In: Nichols JH (ed), 2006, National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry, 126–134.
185. Panek, R., Lawen, T., Kiberd, B.A., Screening for proteinuria in kidney transplant recipients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 26 (2011), 1385–1387.
186. Incerti, J., Zelmanovitz, T., Camargo, J.L., et al. Evaluation of tests for microalbuminuria screening in patients with diabetes. Nephrol Dial Transplant 20 (2005), 2402–2407.
187. Methven, S., MacGregor, M.S., Traynor, J.P., et al. Assessing proteinuria in chronic kidney disease: protein-creatinine ratio versus albumin-creatinine ratio. Nephrol Dial Transplant 25 (2010), 2991–2996.
188. Methven, S., MacGregor, M.S., Traynor, J.P., et al. Comparison of urinary albumin and urinary total protein as predictors of patient outcomes in CKD. Am J Kidney Dis 57 (2011), 21–28.
189. Methven, S., Traynor, J.P., Hair, M.D., et al. Stratifying risk in chronic kidney disease: an observational study of UK guidelines for measuring total proteinuria and albuminuria. QJM 104 (2011), 663–670.
190. Nauta, F.L., Bakker, S.J., van Oeveren, W., et al. Albuminuria, proteinuria, and novel urine biomarkers as predictors of long-term allograft outcomes in kidney transplant recipients. Am J Kidney Dis 57 (2011), 733–743.
191. Ellam, T.J., Albumin:creatinine ratio–a flawed measure? The merits of estimated albuminuria reporting. Nephron Clin Pract 118 (2011), c324–c330.
192. Comper, W.D., Osicka, T.M., Clark, M., et al. Earlier detection of microalbuminuria in diabetic patients using a new urinary albumin assay. Kidney Int 65 (2004), 1850–1855.
193. Comper, W.D., Osicka, T.M., Jerums, G., High prevalence of immuno-unreactive intact albumin in urine of diabetic patients. Am J Kidney Dis 41 (2003), 336–342.
194. Magliano, D.J., Polkinghorne, K.R., Barr, E.L., et al. HPLC-detected albuminuria predicts mortality. J Am Soc Nephrol 18 (2007), 3171–3176.
195. Osicka, T.M., Comper, W.D., Characterization of immunochemically nonreactive urinary albumin. Clin Chem 50 (2004), 2286–2291.
196. Sviridov, D., Drake, S.K., Hortin, G.L., Reactivity of urinary albumin (microalbumin) assays with fragmented or modified albumin. Clin Chem 54 (2008), 61–68.
197. Sviridov, D., Meilinger, B., Drake, S.K., et al. Coelution of other proteins with albumin during size-exclusion HPLC: Implications for analysis of urinary albumin. Clin Chem 52 (2006), 389–397.
198. Tsioufis, C., Mazaraki, A., Dimitriadis, K., et al. Microalbuminuria in the paediatric age: current knowledge and emerging questions. Acta Paediatr 100 (2011), 1180–1184.
199. Rademacher, E.R., Sinaiko, A.R., Albuminuria in children. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 18 (2009), 246–251.
200. Wrong, O.M., Norden, A.G., Feest, T.G., Dent's disease; a familial proximal renal tubular syndrome with low-molecular-weight proteinuria, hypercalciuria, nephrocalcinosis, metabolic bone disease, progressive renal failure and a marked male predominance. QJM 87 (1994), 473–493.
201. Atkins, R.C., Briganti, E.M., Zimmet, P.Z., et al. Association between albuminuria and proteinuria in the general population: the AusDiab Study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 18 (2003), 2170–2174.
202. Gosling, P., Clinical Biochemistry: Metabolic and Clinical Aspects, 2008, Elsevier, 156–173 Marshall WJ, Bangert SK (eds), 2nd Ed.
203. Goren, M.P., Li, J.T., The Coomassie Brilliant Blue method underestimates drug-induced tubular proteinuria. Clin Chem 32 (1986), 386–388.
204. Weber, M.H., Verwiebe, R., Alpha 1-microglobulin (protein HC): features of a promising indicator of proximal tubular dysfunction. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 30 (1992), 683–691.
205. Herget-Rosenthal, S., Poppen, D., Husing, J., et al. Prognostic value of tubular proteinuria and enzymuria in nonoliguric acute tubular necrosis. Clin Chem 50 (2004), 552–558.
206. Ginevri, F., Piccotti, E., Alinovi, R., et al. Reversible tubular proteinuria precedes microalbuminuria and correlates with the metabolic status in diabetic children. Pediatr Nephrol 7 (1993), 23–26.
207. Tomlinson, P.A., Smellie, J.M., Prescod, N., et al. Differential excretion of urinary proteins in children with vesicoureteric reflux and reflux nephropathy. Pediatr Nephrol 8 (1994), 21–25.
208. Bird, J.M., Owen, R.G., D'Sa, S., et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of multiple myeloma 2011. Br J Haematol 154 (2011), 32–75.