Governing Lethal Behavior in Autonomous Robots

Governing Lethal Behavior in Autonomous Robots

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-259

  Arkin, Ronald ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN; MACHINE DESIGN; MOTIVATION; PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS;

ADAPTIVE COMPONENTS; AUTONOMOUS ROBOTIC SYSTEMS; AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS; DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS; MILITARY PERSONNELS; OFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCHES; RULES OF ENGAGEMENTS; UNETHICAL ACTIONS;

ROBOTS;

EID: 85055399228     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/9781420085952     Document Type: Book

References (221)

1. AAI, “Quit Your Sniping: Or Your First Shot Will Be Your Last,” AAI Corporation Product Brochure, 2007.
2. Adams, T., “Future Warfare and the Decline of Human Decisionmaking,” Parameters, U.S. Army War College Quarterly, Winter 2001–02, pp. 57–71.
3. Air Force Times, “Reaper UAVs Join the Fight in Iraq,” July 23, 2008, http://www.airforcetimes.com/news/2008/07/airforce:reaper_iraq_072108w/.
4. AFJAGS, Air Force Judge Advocate General’s School, The Military Commander and the Law, 8th ed. 2006.
5. AFP, “Russia unveils pilotless ‘stealth’ bomber,” Agence France Presse, August 23, 2007.
6. AFP, “US Says Hellfire Missiles Kill 12 in Baghdad,” Agence France Presse, April 8, 2008.
7. Air Force, “Reaper moniker given to MQ-9 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle,” Official Website of the United States Air Force, http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp? storyID=123027012, 2006.
8. Air Force Pamphlet [AFPAM] 110-31, International Law—The Conduct of Armed Conflict and Air Operations, pp. 15–16, Nov. 1976.
9. Allen, C., Wallach, W., and Smit, I., “Why Machine Ethics?” IEEE Intelligent Systems, pp. 12–17, July/August 2006.
10. Amodio, D., Devine, P, and Harmon-Jones, E., “A Dynamic Model of Guilt,” Psychological Science, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 524–530, 2007.
11. Anderson, M., Anderson, S., and Armen, C., “Towards Machine Ethics: Implementing Two Action-based Ethical Theories,” 2005 AAAI Fall Symposium on Machine Ethics, AAAI Technical Report FS-05-06, pp. 1–7, 2005.
12. Anderson, M., Anderson, S., and Armen, C., “MedEthEx: Towards a Medical Ethics Advisor,” Proc. AAAI 2005 Fall Symposium on Caring Machines: AI in Elder Care, AAAI Tech Report FS-05-02, pp. 9–16, 2005.
13. Anderson, M., Anderson, S., and Armen, C., “An Approach to Computing Ethics,” IEEE Intelligent Systems, July/August, pp. 56–63, 2006.
14. Anderson, S., “Asimov’s ‘Three Laws of Robotics’ and Machine Metaethics,” AI and Society, Springer, published online March 2007b.
15. Aquinas, T., “Summa Theologica,” in The Morality of War: Classical and Contemporary Readings (Eds. L. May, E. Rovie, and S. Viner 2005), Pearson-Prentice Hall, pp. 26–33, ca. 1265.
16. ARDEC-WVU Spiral 1 Network Lethality Demo brochure, Armament Research and Development Center (ARDEC), July 25, 2007.
17. Argy, P., “Ethics Dilemma in Killer Bots,” Australian IT News, June 14, 2007.
18. Arkin, R.C., “Neuroscience in Motion: The Application of Schema Theory to Mobile Robotics,” chapter in Visuomotor Coordination: Amphibians, Comparisons, Models, and Robots, ed. P. Evert and M. Arbib, Plenum, pp. 649–672, 1989.
19. Arkin, R.C., “Modeling Neural Function at the Schema Level: Implications and Results for Robotic Control,” chapter in Biological Neural Networks in Invertebrate Neuroethology and Robotics, ed. R. Beer, R. Ritzmann, and T. McKenna, Academic Press, pp. 383–410, 1992.
20. Arkin, R.C., Behavior-based Robotics, MIT Press, 1998.
21. Arkin, R.C., “Moving Up the Food Chain: Motivation and Emotion in Behavior-based Robots,” in Who Needs Emotions: The Brain Meets the Robot, Eds. J. Fellous and M. Arbib, Oxford University Press, pp. 245–270, 2005.
22. Arkin, R.C. and Balch, T., “AuRA: Principles and Practice in Review,” Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 175– 189, 1997.
23. Arkin, R.C., Collins, T.R., and Endo, T., “Tactical Mobile Robot Mission Specification and Execution,” Mobile Robots XIV, Boston, MA, Sept. 1999, pp. 150–163.
24. Arkin, R.C., Fujita, M., Takagi, T., and Hasegawa, R., “An Ethological and Emotional Basis for Human-Robot Interaction,” Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 42 (3–4), March 2003.
25. Arkoudas, K., Bringsjord, S., and Bello, P., “Toward Ethical Robots via Mechanized Deontic Logic,” AAAI Fall Symposium on Machine Ethics, AAAI Technical Report FS-05-06, 2005.
26. Asaro, P., “What Should We Want From a Robot Ethic?” International Review of Information Ethics, Vol. 6, pp. 9–16, Dec. 2006.
27. Asaro, P., “How Just Could a Robot War Be?” 5th European Computing and Philosophy Conference, Twente, NL, June 2007.
28. Asimov, I., I, Robot, New York: Doubleday, 1950.
29. Asimov, I., Robots and Empire, New York: Doubleday, 1985.
30. ATSC (Army Training Support Center), “Apply the Ethical Decision-Making Method as a Commander Leader or Staff Member,” 158-100-1331, http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/army/ethical_d-m.htm, 2007 (accessed 9/11/2008).
31. Aviles, W.A., et al., “Issues in Mobile Robotics: The Unmanned Ground Vehicle Program TeleOperated Vehicle (TOV),” SPIE Vol. 1388, Mobile Robots V, Boston, MA, pp. 587–597, November, 8–9, 1990.
32. Bains, S., “Feeling Robots’ Pain,” Brains and Machines Blog, May 22, 2007, http://sunnybains.typepad.com/blog/2007/05/anthropomorphiz.html (accessed 8/31/2008).
33. Baker, J., “Judging Kosovo: The Legal Process, The Law of Armed Conflict, and The Commander in Chief,” in Legal and Ethical Lessons of NATO’s Kosovo Campaign, International Law Studies (Ed. A. Wall), Naval War College, Vol. 78, 2002.
34. Balch, T. and Arkin, R.C., “Behavior-based Formation Control for Multi-robot Teams,” IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, Vol. 14, No. 6, pp. 926–939, December 1998.
35. Baldor, L., “Military Declined to Bomb Group of Taliban at Funeral,” Associated Press article, Washington, D.C., Sept. 14, 2006.
36. BBC Online, “What happened at Haditha?” December 21, 2006, news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5033648.stm (accessed 9/11/2008).
37. Berger, J.B., Grimes, D., and Jensen, E. (Ed.), Operational Law Handbook, International and Operational Law Department, The Judge Advocate General’s Legal Center and School, Charlottesville, VA, 2004.
38. Best, S.J., Krueger, B.S., Internet Data Collection, Sage, 2004.
39. Bill, B. (Ed.), Law of War Workshop Deskbook, International and Operational Law Department, Judge Advocate General’s School, June 2000.
40. Borenstein, J., “The Ethics of Autonomous Military Robots,” Studies in Ethics, Law, and Technology, Vol. 2, Issue 1, Article 2, Berkeley Electronic Press, 2008.
41. Bourke, J., An Intimate History of Killing, Basic Books, 1999.
42. Bourne, J., A Catechism of the Steam Engine, Gutenberg eBook, 1856, http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10998/10998-h/10998-h.htm (accessed 9/4/08).
43. Brandt, R., “Utilitarianism and the Rules of War,” in The Morality of War: Classical and Contemporary Readings, (Eds. L. May, E. Rovie, and S. Viner 2005), Pearson-Prentice Hall, pp. 234–245, 1972.
44. Bring, O., “International Humanitarian Law After Kosovo: Is Lex Lata Sufficient?” in Legal and Ethical Lessons of NATO’s Kosovo Campaign, International Law Studies (Ed. A. Wall), Naval War College, Vol. 78, pp. 257–272, 2002.
45. Bringsjord, S., Arkoudas, K., and Bello, P., “Toward a General Logicist Methodology for Engineering Ethically Correct Robots,” Intelligent Systems, July/August, pp. 38–44, 2006.
46. Brooks, R., “The Behavior Language,” A.I. Memo No. 1227, MIT AI Laboratory, April 1990.
47. Butler, A. and Wall, R., “Navy: Unmanned Combat Squadron by 2025,” Aviation Week’s DTI, March 12, 2008.
48. Calhoun, L., “The Strange Case of Summary Execution by a Predator Drone,” Peace Review, 15:2, pp. 209–214, 2003.
49. Canning, J., Riggs, G., Holland, O., and Blakelock, C., “A Concept for the Operation of Armed Autonomous Systems on the Battlefield,” Proc. AUVSI 2004, Anaheim, CA, Aug. 2004.
50. Canning, J., “A Concept of Operations for Armed Autonomous Systems,” Presentation at NDIA Disruptive Technologies Conference, 2006.
51. Canning, J., “Weaponized Unmanned Systems: A Transformational Warfighting Opportunity, Government Roles in Making it Happen,” preprint to appear in American Society of Naval Engineers Journal, 2008.
52. Card, J., “Killer Machines,” Foreign Policy, May/June 2007. http://www.foreignpolicy. com/story/cms.php?story_id=3813 (accessed 9/1/08).
53. Cervellati, M., Esteban, J., and Kranich, L., “Moral Values, Self-Regulatory Emotions, and Redistribution, Working Paper, Institute for Economic Analysis, Barcelona, May 2007.
54. CLAMO (Center for Law and Military Operations), Rules of Engagement (ROE) Handbook for Judge Advocates, Charlottesville, VA, May 2000.
55. CLAMO (Center for Law and Military Operations), Deployed Marine Air-Ground Judge Advocate Handbook, Judge Advocate Generals’ School, Charlottesville, VA, 15 July 2002.
56. Clausewitz, C. Von, “On the Art of War,” in The Morality of War: Classical and Contemporary Readings (Eds. L. May, E. Rovie, and S. Viner 2005), Pearson-Prentice Hall, pp. 115–121, 1832.
57. Cloos, C., “The Utilibot Project: An Autonomous Mobile Robot Based on Utilitarianism,” 2005 AAAI Fall Symposium on Machine Ethics, AAAI Technical Report FS-05-06, pp. 38–45, 2005.
58. [CMU 07] Carnegie Mellon Robotics Institute Projects Website, “Gladiator,” http://www.ri.cmu.edu/projects/project_566.html, Version January 2007 (accessed 9/11/2008).
59. CNN, “Armchair Pilots Striking Afghanistan by Remote Control,” July 9, 2008, http://www.cnn. com/2008/TECH/07/09/remote. fighters/index. html (accessed 9/11/08).
60. Coleman, K., “Android Arete: Toward a Virtue Ethic for Computational Agents,” Ethics and Information Technology, Vol. 3, pp. 247–265, 2001.
61. Collins, T.R., Arkin, R.C., Cramer, M.J., and Endo, Y., “Field Results for Tactical Mobile Robot Missions,” Unmanned Systems 2000, Orlando, FL, July 2000.
62. Cook, M., The Moral Warrior: Ethics and Service in the U.S. Military, State University of New York Press, 2004.
63. Danyluk, S., “Preventing Atrocities,” Marine Corps Gazette, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 36–38, June 2000.
64. DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) Broad Agency Announcement 07-52, Scalable Network Monitoring, Strategic Technology Office, August 2007.
65. Davis, D., “Who Decides: Man or Machine?” Armed Forces Journal, 2008.
66. Defense Update, “Low Cost Autonomous Attack System,” Issue 4, Year 2004, http://www.defense-update.com/products/l/locaas.htm (accessed 9/11/08).
67. Defense Update, “Harpy Air Defense Suppression System,” http://www.defense-update.com/directory/harpy.htm (accessed 9/11/08).
68. Del Giorno, M., Personal Communication, General Dynamics Robotics Systems, August 2008.
69. Devine, M., and Sebasto, A., “Fast-Track Armaments for Iraq and Afghanistan,” Defense AT&L, pp. 18–21, May–June 2004.
70. Dillman, D.A., Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, 2007.
71. Dinstein, Y., “Legitimate Military Objectives Under the Current Jus in Bello,” in Legal and Ethical Lessons of NATO’s Kosovo Campaign, International Law Studies (Ed. A. Wall), Naval War College, Vol. 78, pp. 139–172, 2002.
72. DOD (Department of Defense), Unmanned Systems Safety Guide for DOD Acquisition, June 27, 2007a.
73. DOD (Department of Defense) Joint Publication 1-02, Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, April 2001, Amended through June 2007.
74. DOD CIO Department of Defense Global Information Grid Architectural Vision, Version 1.0, June 2007.
75. Downes, A., Targeting Civilians in War, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 2008.
76. Endo, Y., MacKenzie, D., and Arkin, R.C., “Usability Evaluation of High-level User Assistance for Robot Mission Specification,” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 168–180, May 2004.
77. Erwin, S., “For the First Time, Navy will Launch Weapons from Surveillance Drones,” National Defense, June 2007.
78. Eshel, D., “Israel Intercepts Two Attack UAV Launched by Hezbollah,” Defense Update, Aug. 14, 2006, http://www.defense-update.com/2006/08/israel-intercept-two-attack-uav.html (accessed 8/31/2008).
79. Feldman, Y., “The Transformers,” Haaretz.com, http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1000981.html (accessed 7/17/08).
80. Fellous, J.-M. and Arbib, M. (Eds.), Who Needs Emotions? The Brain Meets the Robot, Oxford University Press, 2005.
81. Fielding, M., “Robotics in Future Land Warfare,” Australian Army Journal, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 99–108, Winter 2006.
82. Fieser, J. and Dowden, B., “Just War Theory,” The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://www.iep.utm.edu/j/justwar.htm, 2007 (accessed 9/11/08).
83. Foss, M., “What are Autonomous Weapon Systems and What Ethical Issues do they Raise,” June 27, http://marekfoss.org/works/Autonomous_Weapons. pdf (accessed 8/30/08), 2008.
84. Foster-Miller Inc., “Products & Service: TALON Military Robots, EOD, SWORDS, and Hazmat Robots,” http://www.foster-miller.com/lemming.htm, 2008 (accessed 9/11/08).
85. Gazzaniga, M., The Ethical Brain, Dana Press, 2005.
86. Gibson, J.J., The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA, 1979.
87. Gilmore, G., “Report Reflects Future for Military’s Unmanned Systems,” American Forces Press Service News Article, Department of Defense, Dec. 18, 2007.
88. Government Accountability Office (GAO), “Patriot Missile Defense: Software Problem Led to System Failure at Dhahran,” Feb. 4, 1992, http://www.fas. org/spp/starwars/gao/im92026.htm (accessed 8/31/2008).
89. Grau, C., “There is no ‘I’ in ‘Robot’: Robots and Utilitarianism,” IEEE Intelligent Systems, July/August, pp. 52–55, 2006.
90. Grossman, D., On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society, Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1995.
91. GT MRL (Georgia Tech Mobile Robot Laboratory), Manual for MissionLab Version 7.0, http://www.cc.gatech.edu/aimosaic/robot-lab/research/Mission Lab/mlab_manual-7.0.pdf, 2007.
92. Guarini, M., “Particularism and the Classification and Reclassification of Moral Cases,” IEEE Intelligent Systems, July/August, pp. 22–28, 2006.
93. Guetlein, M., “Lethal Autonomous Systems—Ethical and Doctrinal Implications,” Naval War College Joint Military Operations Department Paper, February 2005.
94. Gulam, H. and Lee, S., “Uninhabited Combat Aerial Vehicles and the Law of Armed Conflict,” Australian Army Journal, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 123–136, 2006.
95. Haidt, J., “The Moral Emotions,” in Handbook of Affective Sciences (Eds. R. Davidson et al.), Oxford University Press, 2003.
96. Hartle, A., Moral Issues in Military Decision Making, 2nd Ed., Revised, University Press of Kansas, 2004.
97. Hauser, M., Moral Minds: How Nature Designed Our Universal Sense of Right and Wrong, ECCO, HarperCollins, NY, 2006.
98. Hersh, S., “A Reporter at Large. The Reprimand,” The New Yorker, October 9, p. 119, via [Bourke 99], 1971.
99. Hightower, J.D., Smith, D.C., and Wiker, S.F., “Development of Remote Presence Technology for Teleoperator Systems,” Proceedings of the 14th Meeting of the UJNR/MFP, September 1986.
100. Himma, K., “Artificial Agency, Consciousness, and the Criteria for Moral Agency: What Properties Must an Artificial Agent Have to be a Moral Agent?” 7th International Computer Ethics Conference, San Diego, CA, July 2007.
101. Horty, J., Agency and Deontic Logic, Oxford University Press, 2001.
102. Hosken, G., Schmidt, M., and du Plessis, J., “9 Killed in Army Horror,” Independent Online, Oct. 13, 2007, http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click=_i d=13&art+id=vn20071013080449804C939465 (accessed 8/31/2008).
103. Hoyle, C., “UK Reaper Releases Weapons for First Time,” Flight International, June 12, 2008. http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/06/12/224507/uk-reap-er-releases-weapons-for-first-time.html (accessed 9/11/08).
104. Hsieh, M., Cowley, A., Keller, J., Chaimonwicz, L., Grocholsky, B., Kumar, V., Taylor, C., Endo, Y., Arkin, R.C., Jung, B., Wolf, D., Sukhatme, G., and Mackenzie, D., “Adaptive Teams of Autonomous Aerial and Ground Robots for Situational Awareness,” Journal of Field Robotics, Vol. 4, No. 11–12, pp. 991–1014, Nov.–Dec. 2007.
105. Human Rights Watch, “International Humanitarian Law Issues in the Possible U.S. Invasion of Iraq,” Lancet, Feb. 20, 2003.
106. Hussain, Z. and Dreazen, Y., “Strike Kills Militant tied to Europe Attacks,” The Wall Street Journal Online, May 20, 2008.
107. iRobot Press Release, “iRobot and Boston Univ. Photonics Unveil Advanced Sniper Detection for iRobot Packbot,” Oct. 3, 2005.
108. iRobot Press Release, “iRobot and TASER Team to Deliver New Robot Capabilities for Military, Law Enforcement,” June 28, 2007.
109. Isaacson, W., Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon and Schuster, 2007.
110. Jean, G., “Unmanned Bombers at Sea?” National Defense, pp. 42–44, September 2007.
111. Jewell, M., “Taser, iRobot team up to arm robots,” Associated Press News Wire, June 2007.
112. Johnstone, J., “Technology as Empowerment: A Capability Approach to Computer Ethics,” Ethics and Information Technology, Vol. 9, pp. 73–87, 2007.
113. Joy, B., “Why the Future Doesn’t Need Us,” Wired, Issue 8.04, November 2000.
114. Kaelbling, L., and Rosenschein, S., “Action and Planning in Embedded Systems,” in Designing Autonomous Agents, ed. P. Maes, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 35–48.
115. Kant, I., Perpetual Peace and Other Essays on Politics, History, and Morals, trans. T. Humphrey, Hackett, Indianapolis, 1985.
116. Kim, H.-J., “South Korea Struggles to Probe Tourist Death,” Associated Press, July 25, 2008a.
117. Kim, H.-J., “North Korea Rejects Probe into Tourist’s Death,” Associated Press, July 15, 2008b.
118. Kira, Z. and Arkin, R.C., “Forgetting Bad Behavior: Memory Management for Case-based Navigation,” Proc. IROS-2004, Sendai, JP, 2004.
119. Klein, J., “The Problematic Nexus: Where Unmanned Combat Air Vehicles and the Law of Armed Conflict Meet,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, July 2003.
120. Koehl, S., “A Milestone in the Annals of Air Warfare,” The Weekly Standard, November 26, 2007, http://www.weeklystandard.com/weblogs/TWSFP/2007/11/a_milestone_in_the_annals_of_a.asp (accessed 9/11/08).
121. Kolodner, J., Case-Based Reasoning, San Mateo: Morgan Kaufmann, 1993.
122. Krotkov, E., and Blitch, J., “The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Tactical Mobile Robotics Program,” International Journal of Robotics Research, Vol. 18, No. 7, pp. 769–776, 1999.
123. Kumagai, J., “A Robotic Sentry for Korea’s Demilitarized Zone,” IEEE Spectrum, March 2007. http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/mar07/4948 (accessed 9/11/08).
124. Lee, J.B., Likhachev, M., and Arkin, R.C., “Selection of Behavioral Parameters: Integration of Discontinuous Switching via Case-based Reasoning with Continuous Adaptation via Learning Momentum,” 2002 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Washington, DC May 2002.
125. Likhachev, M., Kaess, M., and Arkin, R.C., “Learning Behavioral Parameterization Using Spatio-Temporal Case-based Reasoning,” 2002 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Washington, DC May 2002.
126. Lockheed-Martin, NLOS-LS Non-Line of Sight Launch System, Fact Sheet, 2006.
127. Lockheed-Martin, Mule/ARV-A(L), Fact Sheet, 2007, http://www.missilesandfire-control.com/our_news/factsheets/Product_Card-MULE.pdf.
128. Loyd, A., “Remote-Controlled RAF Reaper Targets the Taleban,” The Times, July 23, 2008.
129. MacKenzie, D., Arkin, R.C., and Cameron, J., 1997. “Multiagent Mission Specification and Execution,” Autonomous Robots, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 29–57, Jan. 1997.
130. Magnuson, S., “Robo Soldiers,” National Defense, pp. 36–40, September 2007.
131. Maksel, R., “Predators and Dragons,” Air & Space Magazine, Smithsonian, July 1, 2008.
132. Maner, W., “Heuristic Methods for Computer Ethics,” Metaphilosophy, Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 339–365, April 2002.
133. Marshall, S.L.A., Men Against Fire: The Problem of Battle Command in Future War, New York: William Morrow, 1947.
134. Matthias, A., “The Responsibility Gap: Ascribing Responsibility for the Actions of Learning Automata,” Ethics and Information Technology, Vol. 6, pp. 175–183.
135. May, L., Rovie, E., and Viner, S., The Morality of War: Classical and Contemporary Readings, Pearson-Prentice Hall, 2005.
136. May, L., “Superior Orders, Duress, and Moral Perception,” in The Morality of War: Classical and Contemporary Readings (Eds. L. May, E. Rovie, and S. Viner, 2005), pp. 430–439, 2004.
137. McLaren, B., “Extensionally Defining Principles and Cases in Ethics: An AI Model,” Artificial Intelligence Journal, Vo. 150, pp. 145–181, Nov. 2003.
138. McLaren, B., “Lessons in Machine Ethics from the Perspective of Two Computational Models of Ethical Reasoning,” 2005 AAAI Fall Symposium on Machine Ethics, AAAI Technical Report FS-05-06, 2005.
139. McLaren, B., “Computational Models of Ethical Reasoning: Challenges, Initial Steps, and Future Directions,” IEEE Intelligent Systems, July/August, pp. 29–37, 2006.
140. McLoughlin, R., “Fourth Generation Warfare and Network-Centric Warfare,” Marine Corps Gazette, 2006, http://www.mca-marines.org/GAZETTE/06 mcloughlin.asp (accessed 9/11/08).
141. Moll, J., Zahn, R., de Oliveira-Souza, R., Krueger, F., and Grafman, J., “The Neural Basis of Human Moral Cognition,” Nature Reviews/Neuroscience, Vol. 6, pp. 799–809, Oct. 2005.
142. Moor, J., “The Nature, Importance, and Difficulty of Machine Ethics,” IEEE Intelligent Systems, July/August, pp. 18–21, 2006.
143. Moshkina, L. and Arkin, R.C., “Human Perspective on Affective Robotic Behavior: A Longitudinal Study,” Proc. IROS-2005, Calgary, CA, September 2005.
144. Moshkina, L. and Arkin, R.C., “On TAMEing Robots,” Proc. 2003 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Washington, DC October 2003.
145. Moshkina, L. and Arkin, R., “Lethality and Autonomous Systems: Survey Design and Results,” Georgia Tech GVU Center Technical Report GIT-GVU-07-16, 2008a.
146. Moshkina, L. and Arkin, R.C., “Lethality and Autonomous Systems: The Roboticist Demographic,” Proc. IEEE International Symposium on Technology and Society, Fredericton, CA, June 2008b.
147. Mount, M., “Army Suicide Rate Could Top Nation’s This Year,” CNN.com, Sept. 9, 2008, http://www.cnn.com/2008/HEALTH/09/09/army.suicides/(accessed 9/24/08).
148. Norman, R., Ethics, Killing and War, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1995.
149. NSA National Security Agency Website, “Global Information Grid,” http:www.nsa.gov/ia/industry/gig.cfm (accessed October 4, 2008).
150. O’Brien, J., “Killer Robots Could Replace Soldiers,” Fortune Magazine, pp. 49–53, December 4, 2007.
151. Opall-Rome, B., “Israel Wants Robotic Guns, Missiles to Guard Gaza,” Defensenews. com, 2007, http://www.defensenews.com/story.php? F=2803275& C= mideast.
152. OPFOR Battle Book, ST 100-7, http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/army/docs/st100-7/index.html (accessed 9/11/08), March 1998.
153. Pappalardo, J., “Shift on Future Combat Systems will Rush High-Tech Gear to Iraq,” Popular Mechanics, June 26, 2008.
154. Parks, W.H., “Commentary,” in Legal and Ethical Lessons of NATO’s Kosovo Campaign, International Law Studies (Ed. A. Wall), Naval War College, Vol. 78, pp. 281–292, 2002.
155. Parks, W.H., “Crimes in Hostilities. Part I,” Marine Corps Gazette, August 1976.
156. Parks, W.H., “Crimes in Hostilities. Conclusion,” Marine Corps Gazette, September 1976a.
157. Parry, C.P., “The Impact of Proliferation: Current and Projected Future Use of Autonomous Vehicles by Criminal & Terrorist Groups,” presentation at Royal United Services Workshop on The Ethics and Legal Implications of Unmanned Vehicles for Defence and Security Purposes, London, U.K., Feb. 27, 2008.
158. People Daily Online (English), “Invisible Sword, China’s Pilotless Aircraft Unveiled,” October 31, 2006, http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200610/31/eng20061031_316839.html (accessed 9/11/08).
159. Perkowitz, S., Digital People: From Bionic Humans to Androids, John Henry Press, 2004.
160. Perri 6, “Ethics, Regulation and the New Artificial Intelligence, Part II: Autonomy and Liability,” Information, Communication and Society, 4:3, pp. 406–434, 2001.
161. Powers, T., “Deontological Machine Ethics,” 2005 AAAI Fall Symposium on Machine Ethics, AAAI Technical Report FS-05-06, pp. 79–86, 2005.
162. Powers, T., “Prospects for a Kantian Machine,” IEEE Intelligent Systems, July/August, pp. 46–51, 2006.
163. Punch, K.F., Survey Research: The Basics, Sage, 2003.
164. QinetiQ, “QinitiQ North America Ships First MAARS Robot,” Press Release, June 5, 2008, http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news_releases_homepage/2008/2nd_ quarter/qinetiq_north_america0.html (accessed 9/11/08), 2008.
165. Radiance Technologies, WeaponWatch Product Sheet, 2007, http://www.radiancetech.com/products/weaponwatch.html.
166. Ram, A., Arkin, R.C., Moorman, K., and Clark, R.J., “Case-based Reactive Navigation: A case-based method for on-line selection and adaptation of reactive control parameters in autonomous robotic systems,” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Vol. 27, Part B, No. 3, pp. 376–394, June 1997.
167. Rawcliffe, J., and Smith, J. (Eds.), Operational Law Handbook, International and Operational Law Department, Judge Advocate General’s Legal Center and School, August 2006.
168. Rawls, J., A Theory of Justice, Harvard University Press, 1971.
169. Reuters, “Israel Unveils Portable Hunter-Killer Robot,” March 8, 2007.
170. Russell, S. and Norvig, N., Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, Prentice Hall, 1995.
171. Sagan, S., “Rules of Engagement,” in Avoiding War: Problems of Crisis Management (Ed. A. George), Westview Press, 1991.
172. Sandia Intelligent Systems & Robotics Center, http://www.sandia.gov/isrc/fireant. html (accessed 9/11/08).
173. Schmitt, P., “Gunfire Detection System Protects Troops, Garners Award for ARL Scientist,” RDECOM Magazine, April, May 2005.
174. Sevastopulo, D., “US Army Suicide Cases at Record 115,” Financial Times, May 29, 2008, http://us.ft.com/ftgateway/superpage.ft?news_ id= fto0529 200818023-92265.
175. Sharkey, N., “Cassandra or False Prophet of Doom: AI Robots and War,” IEEE Intelligent Systems, pp. 14–17, July/August 2008.
176. Sharkey, N., “Automated Killers and the Computing Profession,” IEEE Computer, November 2007.
177. ShotSpotter, “Military System Overview,” www.shotspotter.com/products/military. html (accessed 9/11/08), 2007.
178. Slim, H., Killing Civilians: Method, Madness, and Morality in War, Columbia University Press, New York, 2008.
179. Smits, D., and De Boeck, P., “A Componential IRT Model for Guilt,” Multivariate Behavioral Research, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 161–188, 2003.
180. Sparks, B.W. and Neiss, O., “Psychiatric Screening of Combat Pilots,” U.S. Armed Forces Medical Journal, Vol. 4, VII.6, June 1956.
181. Sparrow, R., “Killer Robots,” Journal of Applied Philosophy, Vol. 24, No.1, 2006.
182. Sparrow, R., Personal Communication, July 2, 2007.
183. Sparrow, R., “Building a Better Warbot: Ethical Issues in the design of Unmanned Systems for Military Applications,” manuscript, 2008.
184. SPAWAR, “Force Protection Joint Experiment Evaluates Technology Effectiveness,” SPAWAR Systems Center Pacific Robotics Update, Vol. 8, No. 1, Summer 2008.
185. SROE, Joint Chiefs of Staff Standing Rules of Engagement, Enclosure A, Chairman, JCS Instruction 3121.01 (1 October 1994).
186. Strayer, R., and Ellenhorn, L., “Vietnam Veterans: A Study Exploring Adjustment Patterns and Attitudes,” Journal of Social Issues, 33, 4, as reported in [Bourke 99] 1975.
187. Sullins, J., “When is a Robot a Moral Agent?” International Journal of information Ethics, Vol. 6, 12, 2006.
188. Sung-ki, J., “Korea Plans to Develop Unmanned Aircraft,” Korea Times, July 23, 2008.
189. Surgeon General’s Office, Mental Health Advisory Team (MHAT) IV Operation Iraqi Freedom 05-07, Final Report, Nov. 17, 2006.
190. Swank, R., and Marchand, W., “Combat Neuroses: Development of Combat Exhaustion,” Archives of Neurology and Psychology, Vol. 55, pp. 236–47, 1946.
191. Tancredi, L., Hardwired Behavior: What Neuroscience Reveals about Morality, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
192. Tangney, J., Stuewig, J., and Mashek, D., “Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior,” Annu. Rev. Psychol., Vol. 58, pp. 345–372, 2007.
193. Thiesen, B., “TARDEC Robotics for Convoy Automation,” RDECOM Magazine, June 2004. http://www.rdecom.army.mil/rdemagazine/200406/in_the_lab. html (accessed 9/11/08).
194. Thurston, R., A History of the Growth of the Steam Engine, D. Appleton and Co. 1878.
195. Toner, J.H., “Military OR Ethics,” Air & Space Power Journal, Summer 2003.
196. Tran, P., “Stealth Drone Makes Automated Flight Test,” Defense News, July 8, 2008.
197. Turilli, M., “Ethical Protocols Design,” Ethics and Information Technology, Vol. 9, pp. 49–62, March 2007.
198. Ulam, P, Endo, Y., Wagner, A., and Arkin, R.C., “Integrated Mission Specification and Task Allocation for Robot Teams—Design and Implementation,” Proc. ICRA 2007, Rome IT, 2007.
199. U.N. Document A/810, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A., res 217 A(III), December 10, 1948.
200. U.S. Army, Pamphlet 27-161-2, International Law, Volume II (23 October 1962)
201. U.S. Army Field Manual FM 27-10 The Law of Land Warfare, July 1956, (amended 1977).
202. U.S. Army Field Manual FM 3-24, Counterinsurgency (Final Draft), June 2006.
203. U.S. Army Field Manual FM 7-21.13, The Soldier’s Guide, February 2004.
204. U.S. Army SBIR Solicitation 07.2, Topic A07-032 “Multi-Agent Based Small Unit Effects Planning and Collaborative Engagement with Unmanned Systems,” pp. 57–68, 2007.
205. U.S. Navy, “Phalanx Close-in Weapons Systems,” United States Navy Factfile, http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=2100&tid=800&ct=2 (accessed 8/2008).
206. U.S. Patent Office, “Reconfigurable balancing robot and method for dynamically transitioning between statically stable mode and dynamically balanced mode,” U.S. Patent Application No. 20080105481, May 2, 2008.
207. USM University of Southern Mississippi ROTC MI III Reading Material, http://www.usm.edu/armyrotc/MSIII/302/MSL%20302%20L03a%20ROE%20 &%20Law%20of%20Land%20Warfare.pdf (accessed 9/11/08).
208. Vanden Brook, T., “Drones Supply Short of Demand,” USA Today, March 28, 2007.
209. Vanden Brook, T., “Drone Attacks Hit High in Iraq,” USA Today, April 29, 2008.
210. Van den Hoven, J. and Lokhorst, G.J., “Deontic Logic and Computer-supported Computer Ethics,” Metaphilosophy, Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 376–387, April 2002.
211. Wagner, A., and Arkin, R.C., “Multi-robot Communication-Sensitive Reconn-aissance,” Proc. 2004 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, New Orleans, 2004.
212. Walzer, M., Just and Unjust Wars, 4th Ed., Basic Books, 1977.
213. Walzer, M., Arguing About War, Yale University Press, 2004.
214. Weiner, T., “New Model Army Soldier Rolls Closer to Battle,” New York Times, Feb. 16, 2005.
215. Wiegel, V., “Building Blocks for Artificial Moral Agents,” Proc. Artificial Life X, 2006.
216. Wiegel, V., Van den Hoven, M., and Lokhorst, G., “Privacy, deontic epistemic action logic and software agents,” Ethics and Information Technology, Vol. 7, pp. 251–264, 2005.
217. Wells, D., (Ed.), An Encyclopedia of War and Ethics, Greenwood Press, 1996.
218. Woodruff, P., “Justification or Excuse: Saving Soldiers at the Expense of Civilians,” in The Morality of War: Classical and Contemporary Readings (Eds. L. May, E. Rovie, and S. Viner, 2005), Pearson-Prentice Hall, pp. 281–291, 1982.
219. World Tribune, “U.S. drone smart bombs an Iraqi car bomb,” World Tribune.com, August 25. 2008, http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/WTARC/2008/ss_iraq0464_08_24.asp (accessed 9/4/08).
220. Yoder, J.H., “When War is Unjust: Being Honest in Just-War Thinking,” in The Morality of War: Classical and Contemporary Readings (Eds. L. May, E. Rovie, and S. Viner, 2005), Pearson-Prentice Hall, pp. 153–159, 1984.
221. Zilberstein, S., “Using Anytime Algorithms in Intelligent System,” AI Magazine, pp 73–83, Fall 1996.