Urban green space and its impact on human health

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Volumn 15, Issue 3, 2018, Pages

  Kondo, Michelle C ^a   Fluehr, Jaime M ^b   McKeon, Thomas ^b   Branas, Charles C ^c  

^a USDA FOREST SERVICE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^c Columbia University ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

Green space; Health; Nature; Urban; Violence

Indexed keywords

HYDROCORTISONE;

GREENSPACE; HEALTH IMPACT; MORTALITY; PUBLIC HEALTH; URBAN AREA; VIOLENCE;

ATTENTION; BLOOD PRESSURE; CANCER INCIDENCE; CONCENTRATION (PARAMETERS); DEPRESSION; DIABETES MELLITUS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; HEART RATE; HEART RATE VARIABILITY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMPACT (ENVIRONMENT); MOOD; MORTALITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PUBLIC HEALTH; REVIEW; STRESS; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; URBAN AREA; VIOLENCE; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY; ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING; EXERCISE; FEMALE; MALE; NATURAL SCIENCE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; URBAN HEALTH;

BLOOD PRESSURE; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES; DEPRESSION; ENVIRONMENT DESIGN; EXERCISE; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; MALE; NATURE; URBAN HEALTH;

EID: 85042801671     PISSN: 16617827     EISSN: 16604601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15030445     Document Type: Review

References (99)

1. Bowler, D.; Buyung-Ali, L.; Knight, T.; Pullin, A. A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments. BMC Public Health 2010, 10, 456.
2. Haluza, D.; Schönbauer, R.; Cervinka, R. Green perspectives for public health: A narrative review on the physiological effects of experiencing outdoor nature. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 5445–5461.
3. James, P.; Banay, R.F.; Hart, J.E.; Laden, F. A review of the health benefits of greenness. Curr. Epidemiol. Rep. 2015, 2, 131–142.
4. Seymour, V. The Human–Nature Relationship and its impact on Health: A Critical Review. Front. Public Health 2016, 4, 260.
5. Chawla, L. Benefits of Nature Contact for Children. J. Plan. Lit. 2015, 30, 433–452.
6. Gascon, M.; Triguero-Mas, M.; Martínez, D.; Dadvand, P.; Forns, J.; Plasència, A.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J. Mental health benefits of long-term exposure to residential green and blue spaces: A systematic review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 4354–4379.
7. Bogar, S.; Beyer, K.M. Green Space, Violence, and Crime A Systematic Review. Trauma Violence Abuse 2015, 17, 160–171.
8. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. World Urbanization Prospects; UN DESA’s Population Division: New York, NY, USA, 2014.
9. Lee, A.C.K.; Maheswaran, R. The health benefits of urban green spaces: A review of the evidence. J. Public Health 2011, 33, 212–222.
10. Branas, C.C.; Macdonald, J.M. A simple strategy to transform health, all over the place. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 2014, 20, 157.
11. Corburn, J. Confronting the challenges in reconnecting urban planning and public health. Am. J. Public Health 2004, 94, 541–546.
12. Moher, D.; Liberati, A.; Tetzlaff, J.; Altman, D.G.; Prisma, G. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009, 6, e1000097.
13. Branas, C.C.; Cheney, R.A.; MacDonald, J.M.; Tam, V.W.; Jackson, T.D.; Ten Have, T.R. A difference-in-differences analysis of health, safety, and greening vacant urban space. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2011, 174, 1296–1306.
14. Kondo, M.; Hohl, B.; Han, S.; Branas, C. Effects of greening and community reuse of vacant lots on crime. Urban Stud. 2016, 53, 3279–3295.
15. Kondo, M.C.; Low, S.C.; Henning, J.; Branas, C.C. The impact of green stormwater infrastructure installation on surrounding health and safety. Am. J. Public Health 2015, 105, e114–e121.
16. Kondo, M.C.; Han, S.; Donovan, G.H.; MacDonald, J.M. The association between urban trees and crime: Evidence from the spread of the emerald ash borer in Cincinnati. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2017, 157, 193–199.
17. Dadvand, P.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J.; Esnaola, M.; Forns, J.; Basagaña, X.; Alvarez-Pedrerol, M.; Rivas, I.; López-Vicente, M.; Pascual, M.D.C.; Su, J. Green spaces and cognitive development in primary schoolchildren. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2015, 112, 7937–7942.
18. Fuertes, E.; Markevych, I.; von Berg, A.; Bauer, C.-P.; Berdel, D.; Koletzko, S.; Sugiri, D.; Heinrich, J. Greenness and allergies: Evidence of differential associations in two areas in Germany. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2014, 68, 787–790.
19. Gose, M.; Plachta-Danielzik, S.; Willié, B.; Johannsen, M.; Landsberg, B.; Müller, M.J. Longitudinal influences of neighbourhood built and social environment on children’s weight status. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 5083–5096.
20. Gubbels, J.S.; Kremers, S.P.; Droomers, M.; Hoefnagels, C.; Stronks, K.; Hosman, C.; de Vries, S. The impact of greenery on physical activity and mental health of adolescent and adult residents of deprived neighborhoods: A longitudinal study. Health Place 2016, 40, 153–160.
21. Jones, A.P.; Coombes, E.G.; Griffin, S.J.; van Sluijs, E.M. Environmental supportiveness for physical activity in English schoolchildren: A study using Global Positioning Systems. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2009, 6, 42.
22. Wolch, J.; Jerrett, M.; Reynolds, K.; McConnell, R.; Chang, R.; Dahmann, N.; Brady, K.; Gilliland, F.; Su, J.G.; Berhane, K. Childhood obesity and proximity to urban parks and recreational resources: A longitudinal cohort study. Health Place 2011, 17, 207–214.
23. Almanza, E.; Jerrett, M.; Dunton, G.; Seto, E.; Pentz, M.A. A study of community design, greenness, and physical activity in children using satellite, GPS and accelerometer data. Health Place 2012, 18, 46–54.
24. Bell, J.F.; Wilson, J.S.; Liu, G.C. Neighborhood greenness and 2-year changes in body mass index of children and youth. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2008, 35, 547–553.
25. Coombes, E.; van Sluijs, E.; Jones, A. Is environmental setting associated with the intensity and duration of children’s physical activity? Findings from the SPEEDY GPS study. Health Place 2013, 20, 62–65.
26. De Vries, S.I.; Bakker, I.; Van Mechelen, W.; Hopman-Rock, M. Determinants of activity-friendly neighborhoods for children: Results from the SPACE study. Am. J. Health Promot. 2007, 21, 312–316.
27. Klinker, C.D.; Schipperijn, J.; Christian, H.; Kerr, J.; Ersbøll, A.K.; Troelsen, J. Using accelerometers and global positioning system devices to assess gender and age differences in children’s school, transport, leisure and home based physical activity. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2014, 11, 8.
28. Klinker, C.D.C.; Schipperijn, J.J.; Kerr, J.J.; Ersbøll, A.K.A.; Troelsen, J.J. Context-specific outdoor time and physical activity among school-children across gender and age: Using accelerometers and GPS to advance methods. Front. Public Health 2014, 2, 20.
29. Lachowycz, K.; Jones, A.P.; Page, A.S.; Wheeler, B.W.; Cooper, A.R. What can global positioning systems tell us about the contribution of different types of urban greenspace to children’s physical activity? Health Place 2012, 18, 586–594.
30. Kondo, M.C.; South, E.C.; Branas, C.C.; Richmond, T.S.; Wiebe, D.J. The association between urban tree cover and gun assault: A case-control and case-crossover study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2017, 186, 289–296.
31. Moore, H.J.; Nixon, C.A.; Lake, A.A.; Douthwaite, W.; O’Malley, C.L.; Pedley, C.L.; Summerbell, C.D.; Routen, A.C. The environment can explain differences in adolescents’ daily physical activity levels living in a deprived urban area: Cross-sectional study using accelerometry, GPS, and focus groups. J. Phys. Act. Health 2014, 11, 1517–1524.
32. Oreskovic, N.M.; Perrin, J.M.; Robinson, A.I.; Locascio, J.J.; Blossom, J.; Chen, M.L.; Winickoff, J.P.; Field, A.E.; Green, C.; Goodman, E. Adolescents’ use of the built environment for physical activity. BMC Public Health 2015, 15, 251.
33. Richardson, E.A.; Pearce, J.; Shortt, N.K.; Mitchell, R. The role of public and private natural space in children’s social, emotional and behavioural development in Scotland: A longitudinal study. Environ. Res. 2017, 158, 729–736.
34. Rodríguez, D.A.; Cho, G.-H.; Evenson, K.R.; Conway, T.L.; Cohen, D.; Ghosh-Dastidar, B.; Pickrel, J.L.; Veblen-Mortenson, S.; Lytle, L.A. Out and about: Association of the built environment with physical activity behaviors of adolescent females. Health Place 2012, 18, 55–62.
35. Younan, D.; Tuvblad, C.; Li, L.; Wu, J.; Lurmann, F.; Franklin, M.; Berhane, K.; McConnell, R.; Wu, A.H.; Baker, L.A. Environmental determinants of aggression in adolescents: Role of urban neighborhood greenspace. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2016, 55, 591–601.
36. Beil, K.; Hanes, D. The Influence of Urban Natural and Built Environments on Physiological and Psychological Measures of Stress—A Pilot Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 1250–1267.
37. Bratman, G.N.; Hamilton, J.P.; Hahn, K.S.; Daily, G.C.; Gross, J.J. Nature experience reduces rumination and subgenual prefrontal cortex activation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2015, 112, 8567–8572.
38. Butryn, T.M.; Furst, D.M. The effects of park and urban settings on the moods and cognitive strategies of female runners. J. Sport Behav. 2003, 26, 335−355.
39. Cusack, L.; Larkin, A.; Carozza, S.; Hystad, P. Associations between residential greenness and birth outcomes across Texas. Environ. Res. 2017, 152, 88–95.
40. Garvin, E.C.; Cannuscio, C.C.; Branas, C.C. Greening vacant lots to reduce violent crime: A randomised controlled trial. Inj. Prev. 2012, 19, 198–203.
41. Gronlund, C.J.; Berrocal, V.J.; White-Newsome, J.L.; Conlon, K.C.; O’Neill, M.S. Vulnerability to extreme heat by socio-demographic characteristics and area green space among the elderly in Michigan, 1990–2007. Environ. Res. 2015, 136, 449–461.
42. Gustat, J.; Rice, J.; Parker, K.M.; Becker, A.B.; Farley, T.A. Effect of changes to the neighborhood built environment on physical activity in a low-income African American neighborhood. Prev. Chronic Dis. 2012, 9, E57.
43. Hartig, T.; Mang, M.; Evans, G.W. Restorative effects of natural environment experiences. Environ. Behav. 1991, 23, 3–26.
44. Hull, R.B., IV; Michael, S.E. Nature-based Recreation, mood change, and stress restoration. Leis. Sci. 1995, 17, 1–14.
45. James, P.; Hart, J.E.; Banay, R.F.; Laden, F. Exposure to greenness and mortality in a nationwide prospective cohort study of women. Environ. Health Perspect. 2016, 124, 1344.
46. Kuo, F.E. Coping with poverty: Impacts of environment and attention in the inner city. Environ. Behav. 2001, 33, 5–34.
47. Mayer, F.S.; Frantz, C.M.; Bruehlman-Senecal, E.; Dolliver, K. Why is nature beneficial? The role of connectedness to nature. Environ. Behav. 2009, 41, 607–643.
48. Michael, Y.L.; Nagel, C.L.; Gold, R.; Hillier, T.A. Does change in the neighborhood environment prevent obesity in older women? Soc. Sci. Med. 2014, 102, 129–137.
49. Semenza, J.C.; March, T.L.; Bontempo, B.D. Community-initiated urban development: An ecological intervention. J. Urban Health 2007, 84, 8–20.
50. South, E.C.; Kondo, M.C.; Cheney, R.A.; Branas, C.C. Neighborhood blight, stress, and health: A walking trial of urban greening and ambulatory heart rate. Am. J. Public Health 2015, 105, 909–913.
51. Wilker, E.H.; Wu, C.-D.; McNeely, E.; Mostofsky, E.; Spengler, J.; Wellenius, G.A.; Mittleman, M.A. Green space and mortality following ischemic stroke. Environ. Res. 2014, 133, 42–48.
52. Zenk, S.N.; Schulz, A.J.; Matthews, S.A.; Odoms-Young, A.; Wilbur, J.; Wegrzyn, L.; Gibbs, K.; Braunschweig, C.; Stokes, C. Activity space environment and dietary and physical activity behaviors: A pilot study. Health Place 2011, 17, 1150–1161.
53. Alcock, I.; White, M.P.; Wheeler, B.W.; Fleming, L.E.; Depledge, M.H. Longitudinal effects on mental health of moving to greener and less green urban areas. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 1247–1255.
54. Aspinall, P.; Mavros, P.; Coyne, R.; Roe, J. The urban brain: Analysing outdoor physical activity with mobile EEG. Br. J. Sports Med. 2015, 49, 272–276.
55. Astell-Burt, T.; Mitchell, R.; Hartig, T. The association between green space and mental health varies across the lifecourse. A longitudinal study. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2014, 68, 578–583.
56. Barton, J.; Griffin, M.; Pretty, J. Exercise-, nature-and socially interactive-based initiatives improve mood and self-esteem in the clinical population. Perspect. Public Health 2012, 132, 89–96.
57. Brown, D.K.; Barton, J.L.; Pretty, J.; Gladwell, V.F. Walks4Work: Assessing the role of the natural environment in a workplace physical activity intervention. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 2014, 40, 390–399.
58. Gidlow, C.J.; Jones, M.V.; Hurst, G.; Masterson, D.; Clark-Carter, D.; Tarvainen, M.P.; Smith, G.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M. Where to put your best foot forward: Psycho-physiological responses to walking in natural and urban environments. J. Environ. Psychol. 2016, 45, 22–29.
59. Sellers, C.; Grant, P.; Ryan, C.; O’Kane, C.; Raw, K.; Conn, D. Take a walk in the park? A cross-over pilot trial comparing brisk walking in two different environments: Park and urban. Prev. Med. 2012, 55, 438–443.
60. Thompson, C.W.; Roe, J.; Aspinall, P. Woodland improvements in deprived urban communities: What impact do they have on people’s activities and quality of life? Landsc. Urban Plan. 2013, 118, 79–89.
61. Droomers, M.; Jongeneel-Grimen, B.; Kramer, D.; de Vries, S.; Kremers, S.; Bruggink, J.-W.; van Oers, H.; Kunst, A.E.; Stronks, K. The impact of intervening in green space in Dutch deprived neighbourhoods on physical activity and general health: Results from the quasi-experimental URBAN40 study. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2016, 70, 147–154.
62. Van den Berg, A.E.; Custers, M.H. Gardening promotes neuroendocrine and affective restoration from stress. J. Health Psychol. 2011, 16, 3–11.
63. Wolfe, M.K.; Groenewegen, P.P.; Rijken, M.; De Vries, S. Green space and changes in self-rated health among people with chronic illness. Eur. J. Public Health 2014, 24, 640–642.
64. Brooks, A.M.; Ottley, K.M.; Arbuthnott, K.D.; Sevigny, P. Nature-related mood effects: Season and type of nature contact. J. Environ. Psychol. 2017, 54, 91–102.
65. Crouse, D.L.; Pinault, L.; Balram, A.; Hystad, P.; Peters, P.A.; Chen, H.; van Donkelaar, A.; Martin, R.V.; Ménard, R.; Robichaud, A.; et al. Urban greenness and mortality in Canada’s largest cities: A national cohort study. Lancet Planetary Health 2017, 1, e289–e297.
66. Demoury, C.; Thierry, B.; Richard, H.; Sigler, B.; Kestens, Y.; Parent, M.-E. Residential greenness and risk of prostate cancer: A case-control study in Montreal, Canada. Environ. Int. 2017, 98, 129–136.
67. Passmore, H.-A.; Howell, A.J. Nature involvement increases hedonic and eudaimonic well-being: A two-week experimental study. Ecopsychology 2014, 6, 148–154.
68. Villeneuve, P.J.; Jerrett, M.; Su, J.G.; Burnett, R.T.; Chen, H.; Wheeler, A.J.; Goldberg, M.S. A cohort study relating urban green space with mortality in Ontario, Canada. Environ. Res. 2012, 115, 51–58.
69. Song, C.; Ikei, H.; Igarashi, M.; Takagaki, M.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological and psychological effects of a walk in urban parks in fall. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 14216–14228.
70. Song, C.; Ikei, H.; Miwa, M.; Takagaki, M.; Igarashi, M.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological and psychological responses of young males during spring-time walks in urban parks. J. Physiol. Anthropol. 2014, 33, 8.
71. Song, C.; Joung, D.; Ikei, H.; Igarashi, M.; Aga, M.; Park, B.-J.; Miwa, M.; Takagaki, M.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological and psychological effects of walking on young males in urban parks in winter. J. Physiol. Anthropol. 2013, 32, 18.
72. Takano, T.; Nakamura, K.; Watanabe, M. Urban residential environments and senior citizens’ longevity in megacity areas: The importance of walkable green spaces. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2002, 56, 913–918.
73. Beenackers, M.A.; Foster, S.; Kamphuis, C.B.; Titze, S.; Divitini, M.; Knuiman, M.; van Lenthe, F.J.; Giles-Corti, B. Taking up cycling after residential relocation: Built environment factors. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2012, 42, 610–615.
74. Paquet, C.; Coffee, N.T.; Haren, M.T.; Howard, N.J.; Adams, R.J.; Taylor, A.W.; Daniel, M. Food environment, walkability, and public open spaces are associated with incident development of cardio-metabolic risk factors in a biomedical cohort. Health Place 2014, 28, 173–176.
75. Sugiyama, T.; Giles-Corti, B.; Summers, J.; du Toit, L.; Leslie, E.; Owen, N. Initiating and maintaining recreational walking: A longitudinal study on the influence of neighborhood green space. Prev. Med. 2013, 57, 178–182.
76. Grazuleviciene, R.; Vencloviene, J.; Kubilius, R.; Grizas, V.; Danileviciute, A.; Dedele, A.; Andrusaityte, S.; Vitkauskiene, A.; Steponaviciute, R.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J. Tracking restoration of park and urban street settings in coronary artery disease patients. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 550.
77. Grazuleviciene, R.; Vencloviene, J.; Kubilius, R.; Grizas, V.; Dedele, A.; Grazulevicius, T.; Ceponiene, I.; Tamuleviciute-Prasciene, E.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J.; Jones, M. The effect of park and urban environments on coronary artery disease patients: A randomized trial. Biomed Res. Int. 2015, 2015, 403012.
78. Tamosiunas, A.; Grazuleviciene, R.; Luksiene, D.; Dedele, A.; Reklaitiene, R.; Baceviciene, M.; Vencloviene, J.; Bernotiene, G.; Radisauskas, R.; Malinauskiene, V. Accessibility and use of urban green spaces, and cardiovascular health: Findings from a Kaunas cohort study. Environ. Health 2014, 13, 20.
79. Tyrväinen, L.; Ojala, A.; Korpela, K.; Lanki, T.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Kagawa, T. The influence of urban green environments on stress relief measures: A field experiment. J. Environ. Psychol. 2014, 38, 1–9.
80. Carrus, G.; Scopelliti, M.; Lafortezza, R.; Colangelo, G.; Ferrini, F.; Salbitano, F.; Agrimi, M.; Portoghesi, L.; Semenzato, P.; Sanesi, G. Go greener, feel better? The positive effects of biodiversity on the well-being of individuals visiting urban and peri-urban green areas. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2015, 134, 221–228.
81. Kwan, M.-P. The uncertain geographic context problem. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 2012, 102, 958–968.
82. Bussières, E.-L.; Tarabulsy, G.M.; Pearson, J.; Tessier, R.; Forest, J.-C.; Giguère, Y. Maternal prenatal stress and infant birth weight and gestational age: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. Dev. Rev. 2015, 36, 179–199.
83. Buka, S.L.; Brennan, R.T.; Rich-Edwards, J.W.; Raudenbush, S.W.; Earls, F. Neighborhood support and the birth weight of urban infants. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2003, 157, 1–8.
84. Hegaard, H.K.; Pedersen, B.K.; Bruun Nielsen, B.; Damm, P. Leisure time physical activity during pregnancy and impact on gestational diabetes mellitus, pre-eclampsia, preterm delivery and birth weight: A review. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 2007, 86, 1290–1296.
85. Brauer, M.; Lencar, C.; Tamburic, L.; Koehoorn, M.; Demers, P.; Karr, C. A cohort study of traffic-related air pollution impacts on birth outcomes. Environ. Health Perspect. 2008, 116, 680–686.
86. Frumkin, H.; Bratman, G.N.; Breslow, S.J.; Cochran, B.; Kahn, P.H., Jr.; Lawler, J.J.; Levin, P.S.; Tandon, P.S.; Varanasi, U.; Wolf, K.L. Nature contact and human health: A research agenda. Environ. Health Perspect. 2017, 125, 075001.
87. Dadvand, P.; Sunyer, J.; Basagana, X.; Ballester, F.; Lertxundi, A.; Fernandez-Somoano, A.; Estarlich, M.; Garcia-Esteban, R.; Mendez, M.A.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J. Surrounding greenness and pregnancy outcomes in four Spanish birth cohorts. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, 1481–1487.
88. Pope, C.A., III; Burnett, R.T.; Thun, M.J.; Calle, E.E.; Krewski, D.; Ito, K.; Thurston, G.D. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2002, 287, 1132–1141.
89. Markevych, I.; Schoierer, J.; Hartig, T.; Chudnovsky, A.; Hystad, P.; Dzhambov, A.M.; De Vries, S.; Triguero-Mas, M.; Brauer, M.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J. Exploring pathways linking greenspace to health: Theoretical and methodological guidance. Environ. Res. 2017, 158, 301–317.
90. Hartig, T.; Mitchell, R.; De Vries, S.; Frumkin, H. Nature and health. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2014, 35, 207– 228.
91. Owen, N.; Humpel, N.; Leslie, E.; Bauman, A.; Sallis, J.F. Understanding environmental influences on walking: Review and research agenda. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2004, 27, 67–76.
92. Chaix, B.; Meline, J.; Duncan, S.; Merrien, C.; Karusisi, N.; Perchoux, C.; Lewin, A.; Labadi, K.; Kestens, Y. GPS tracking in neighborhood and health studies: A step forward for environmental exposure assessment, a step backward for causal inference? Health Place 2013, 21, 46–51.
93. Nieuwenhuis, J. Publication bias in the neighbourhood effects literature. Geoforum 2016, 70, 89–92.
94. Taylor, L.; Hochuli, D.F. Defining greenspace: Multiple uses across multiple disciplines. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2017, 158, 25–38.
95. Kondo, M.C.; South, E.C.; Branas, C.C. Nature-based strategies for improving urban health and safety. J. Urban Health 2015, 92, 800–814.
96. Turner, M.C.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M.; Anderson, K.; Balshaw, D.; Cui, Y.; Dunton, G.; Hoppin, J.A.; Koutrakis, P.; Jerrett, M. Assessing the exposome with external measures: Commentary on the state of the science and research recommendations. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2017, 38, 215–239.
97. Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J.; Donaire-Gonzalez, D.; Foraster, M.; Martinez, D.; Cisneros, A. Using personal sensors to assess the exposome and acute health effects. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 7805– 7819.
98. Ekkel, E.D.; de Vries, S. Nearby green space and human health: Evaluating accessibility metrics. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2017, 157, 214–220.
99. Branas, C.C.; Kondo, M.C.; Murphy, S.M.; South, E.C.; Polsky, D.; MacDonald, J.M. Urban blight remediation as a cost-beneficial solution to firearm violence. Am. J. Public Health 2016, 106, 2158–2164.