Efficacy and safety of stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: a network meta-analysis of randomized trials

Intensive Care Medicine

Volumn 44, Issue 1, 2018, Pages

  Alhazzani, Waleed ^a,b   Alshamsi, Fayez ^c   Belley Cote, Emilie ^b   Heels Ansdell, Diane ^b   Brignardello Petersen, Romina ^b   Alquraini, Mustafa ^a   Perner, Anders ^d   Møller, Morten Hylander ^d   Krag, Mette ^d   Almenawer, Saleh ^b   Rochwerg, Bram ^a,b   Dionne, Joanna ^a   Jaeschke, Roman ^a,b   Alshahrani, Mohammed ^e   Deane, Adam ^f   Perri, Dan ^a   Thebane, Lehana ^b   Al Omari, Awad ^g,h   Finfer, Simon ⁱ   Cook, Deborah ^a,b   Guyatt, Gordon ^a,b   more..

^a MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^c UNITED ARAB EMIRATES UNIVERSITY   (United Arab Emirates)

^d Rigshospitalet   (Denmark)

^e IMAM ABDULRAHMAN BIN FAISAL UNIVERSITY   (Saudi Arabia)

^f UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

^g SECURITY FORCES HOSPITAL   (Saudi Arabia)

^h ALFAISAL UNIVERSITY   (Saudi Arabia)

ⁱ UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Critical illness; Histamine 2 receptor antagonists; Network meta analysis; Pneumonia; Proton pump inhibitors; Stress ulcers; Sucralfate

Indexed keywords

HISTAMINE H2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; SUCRALFATE;

CLINICAL OUTCOME; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE INFECTION; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; META ANALYSIS; MORTALITY; PNEUMONIA; PROPHYLAXIS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; RISK REDUCTION; STRESS ULCER; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; ADULT; CRITICAL ILLNESS; NETWORK META-ANALYSIS; STOMACH ULCER;

ADULT; CRITICAL ILLNESS; HISTAMINE H2 ANTAGONISTS; HUMANS; NETWORK META-ANALYSIS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; STOMACH ULCER;

EID: 85036570038     PISSN: 03424642     EISSN: 14321238     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00134-017-5005-8     Document Type: Review

References (90)

1. Barletta JF, Kanji S, MacLaren R, Lat I, Erstad BL, American–Canadian consortium for Intensive care Drug utilization I (2014) Pharmacoepidemiology of stress ulcer prophylaxis in the United States and Canada. J Crit Care 29:955–960
2. Krag M, Perner A, Wetterslev J, Wise MP, Borthwick M, Bendel S, McArthur C, Cook D, Nielsen N, Pelosi P, Keus F, Guttormsen AB, Moller AD, Moller MH, Co-authors S-I (2015) Prevalence and outcome of gastrointestinal bleeding and use of acid suppressants in acutely ill adult intensive care patients. Intensive Care Med 41:833–845
3. Krag M, Perner A, Wetterslev J, Wise MP, Borthwick M, Bendel S, McArthur C, Cook D, Nielsen N, Pelosi P, Keus F, Guttormsen AB, Moller AD, Moller MH, Collaborators S-I (2015) Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the intensive care unit: an international survey of 97 units in 11 countries. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 59:576–585
4. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Rhodes A, Annane D, Gerlach H, Opal SM, Sevransky JE, Sprung CL, Douglas IS, Jaeschke R, Osborn TM, Nunnally ME, Townsend SR, Reinhart K, Kleinpell RM, Angus DC, Deutschman CS, Machado FR, Rubenfeld GD, Webb S, Beale RJ, Vincent JL, Moreno R, Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines Committee including The Pediatric S (2013) Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock, 2012. Intensive Care Med 39:165–228
5. Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, Levy MM, Antonelli M, Ferrer R, Kumar A, Sevransky JE, Sprung CL, Nunnally ME, Rochwerg B, Rubenfeld GD, Angus DC, Annane D, Beale RJ, Bellinghan GJ, Bernard GR, Chiche J-D, Coopersmith C, De Backer DP, French CJ, Fujishima S, Gerlach H, Hidalgo JL, Hollenberg SM, Jones AE, Karnad DR, Kleinpell RM, Koh Y, Lisboa TC, Machado FR, Marini JJ, Marshall JC, Mazuski JE, McIntyre LA, McLean AS, Mehta S, Moreno RP, Myburgh J, Navalesi P, Nishida O, Osborn TM, Perner A, Plunkett CM, Ranieri M, Schorr CA, Seckel MA, Seymour CW, Shieh L, Shukri KA, Simpson SQ, Singer M, Thompson BT, Townsend SR, Van der Poll T, Vincent J-L, Wiersinga WJ, Zimmerman JL, Dellinger RP (2017) Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med 43:304–377
6. Alhazzani W, Alenezi F, Jaeschke RZ, Moayyedi P, Cook DJ (2013) Proton pump inhibitors versus histamine 2 receptor antagonists for stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 41:693–705
7. Krag M, Perner A, Wetterslev J, Wise MP, Hylander Moller M (2014) Stress ulcer prophylaxis versus placebo or no prophylaxis in critically ill patients. A systematic review of randomised clinical trials with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Intensive Care Med 40:11–22
8. Lu G, Ades AE (2004) Combination of direct and indirect evidence in mixed treatment comparisons. Stat Med 23:3105–3124
9. Hutton B, Salanti G, Caldwell DM, Chaimani A, Schmid CH, Cameron C, Ioannidis JP, Straus S, Thorlund K, Jansen JP, Mulrow C, Catala-Lopez F, Gotzsche PC, Dickersin K, Boutron I, Altman DG, Moher D (2015) The PRISMA extension statement for reporting of systematic reviews incorporating network meta-analyses of health care interventions: checklist and explanations. Ann Intern Med 162:777–784
10. Higgins JP, Altman DG, Gotzsche PC, Juni P, Moher D, Oxman AD, Savovic J, Schulz KF, Weeks L, Sterne JA, Cochrane Bias Methods G, Cochrane Statistical Methods G (2011) The Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ 343:d5928
11. White IR, Barrett JK, Jackson D, Higgins JP (2012) Consistency and inconsistency in network meta-analysis: model estimation using multivariate meta-regression. Res Synth Methods 3:111–125
12. Dias S, Welton NJ, Caldwell DM, Ades AE (2010) Checking consistency in mixed treatment comparison meta-analysis. Stat Med 29:932–944
13. Salanti G, Ades AE, Ioannidis JP (2011) Graphical methods and numerical summaries for presenting results from multiple-treatment meta-analysis: an overview and tutorial. J Clin Epidemiol 64:163–171
14. White IR (2009) Multivariate random-effects meta-analysis. Stata J 9:40–56
15. Balshem H, Helfand M, Schunemann HJ, Oxman AD, Kunz R, Brozek J, Vist GE, Falck-Ytter Y, Meerpohl J, Norris S, Guyatt GH (2011) GRADE guidelines: 3. Rating the quality of evidence. J Clin Epidemiol 64:401–406
16. Puhan MA, Schunemann HJ, Murad MH, Li T, Brignardello-Petersen R, Singh JA, Kessels AG, Guyatt GH, Group GW (2014) A GRADE Working Group approach for rating the quality of treatment effect estimates from network meta-analysis. BMJ 349:g5630
17. Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Kunz R, Woodcock J, Brozek J, Helfand M, Alonso-Coello P, Falck-Ytter Y, Jaeschke R, Vist G, Akl EA, Post PN, Norris S, Meerpohl J, Shukla VK, Nasser M, Schunemann HJ, Group GW (2011) GRADE guidelines: 8. Rating the quality of evidence–indirectness. J Clin Epidemiol 64:1303–1310
18. Apte NM, Karnad DR, Medhekar TP, Tilve GH, Morye S, Bhave GG (1992) Gastric colonization and pneumonia in intubated critically ill patients receiving stress ulcer prophylaxis: a randomized, controlled trial. Crit Care Med 20:590–593
19. Bashar FR, Manuchehrian N, Mahmoudabadi M, Hajiesmaeili MR, Torabian S (2013) Effects of ranitidine and pantoprazole on ventilator-associated pneumonia: a randomized double-blind clinical trial. Tanaffos 12:16–21
20. Basso N, Bagarani M, Materia A, Fiorani S, Lunardi P, Speranza V (1981) Cimetidine and antacid prophylaxis of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in high risk patients. Controlled, randomized trial. Am J Surg 141:339–341
21. Ben-Menachem T, Fogel R, Patel RV, Touchette M, Zarowitz BJ, Hadzijahic N, Divine G, Verter J, Bresalier RS (1994) Prophylaxis for stress-related gastric hemorrhage in the medical intensive care unit. A randomized, controlled, single-blind study. Ann Intern Med 121:568–575
22. Bhanot RD (2010) Nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients receiving ranitidine, omeprazole or sucralfate as stress ulcer prophylaxis. American Thoracic Society International Conference, ATS 2010 New Orleans 181 (1 Meeting Abstracts)
23. Burgess P, Larson GM, Davidson P, Brown J, Metz CA (1995) Effect of ranitidine on intragastric pH and stress-related upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with severe head injury. Dig Dis Sci 40:645–650
24. Cannon LA, Heiselman D, Gardner W, Jones J (1987) Prophylaxis of upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding in mechanically ventilated patients. A randomized study comparing the efficacy of sucralfate, cimetidine, and antacids. Arch Intern Med 147:2101–2106
25. Conrad SA, Gabrielli A, Margolis B, Quartin A, Hata JS, Frank WO, Bagin RG, Rock JA, Hepburn B, Laine L (2005) Randomized, double-blind comparison of immediate-release omeprazole oral suspension versus intravenous cimetidine for the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 33:760–765
26. Cook D, Guyatt G, Marshall J, Leasa D, Fuller H, Hall R, Peters S, Rutledge F, Griffith L, McLellan A, Wood G, Kirby A (1998) A comparison of sucralfate and ranitidine for the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. N Engl J Med 338:791–797
27. Darlong V, Jayalakhsmi TS, Kaul HL, Tandon R (2003) Stress ulcer prophylaxis in patients on ventilator. Trop Gastroenterol 24:124–128
28. De Azevedo JRA, Soares MDGA, Silva GAE, De Lima Palacio G (2000) Prevention of stress ulcer bleeding in high risk patients. Comparison of three drugs. GED Gastrenterol Endosco Dig 19:239–244
29. Eddleston JM, Pearson RC, Holland J, Tooth JA, Vohra A, Doran BH (1994) Prospective endoscopic study of stress erosions and ulcers in critically ill adult patients treated with either sucralfate or placebo. Crit Care Med 22:1949–1954
30. Fabian TC, Boucher BA, Croce MA, Kuhl DA, Janning SW, Coffey BC, Kudsk KA (1993) Pneumonia and stress ulceration in severely injured patients. A prospective evaluation of the effects of stress ulcer prophylaxis. Arch Surg 128:185–191
31. Fink M, Karlstadt RG, Maroko RT, Field B (2003) Intravenous pantoprazole (IVP) and continuous infusion cimetidine (C) prevent upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) regardless of APSII score (APACHE II) in high risk intensive care unit (ICU) patients. Gastroenterology 124:A625–A626
32. Fogas JF, Kiss KK, Gyura FG, Tobias ZT, Molnar ZM, (2013) Effects of proton pump inhibitor versus H2-receptor antagonist stress ulcer prophylaxis on ventilator-associated pneumonia: a pilot study. 33rd International Symposium on Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine Brussels Belgium 17:S150–S151
33. Friedman CJ, Oblinger MJ, Suratt PM, Bowers J, Goldberg SK, Sperling MH, Blitzer AH (1982) Prophylaxis of upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 10:316–319
34. Groll A, Simon JB, Wigle RD, Taguchi K, Todd RJ, Depew WT (1986) Cimetidine prophylaxis for gastrointestinal bleeding in an intensive care unit. Gut 27:135–140
35. Halloran LG, Zfass AM, Gayle WE, Wheeler CB, Miller JD (1980) Prevention of acute gastrointestinal complications after severe head injury: a controlled trial of cimetidine prophylaxis. Am J Surg 139:44–48
36. Hanisch EW, Encke A, Naujoks F, Windolf J (1998) A randomized, double-blind trial for stress ulcer prophylaxis shows no evidence of increased pneumonia. Am J Surg 176:453–457
37. Harlaftis N, Basdanis G, Papapolychroniadis C, Prousalidis J, Apostolidis S, Kosmidis C, Avramidou E, Katsohis C (1997) Nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients during stress ulcer prophylaxis with sucralfate and ranitidine. Hell J Gastroenterol 10:230–235
38. Hata M, Shiono M, Sekino H, Furukawa H, Sezai A, Iida M, Yoshitake I, Hattori T, Wakui S, Soeda M, Taoka M, Negishi N, Sezai Y (2005) Prospective randomized trial for optimal prophylactic treatment of the upper gastrointestinal complications after open heart surgery. Circ J 69:331–334
39. Kantorova I, Svoboda P, Scheer P, Doubek J, Rehorkova D, Bosakova H, Ochmann J (2004) Stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: a randomized controlled trial. Hepatogastroenterology 51:757–761
40. Karlstadt RG, Iberti TJ, Silverstein J, Lindenberg L, Rright-Asare P, Rockhold F, Young MD (1990) Comparison of cimetidine and placebo for the prophylaxis of upper gastrointestinal bleeding due to stress-related gastric mucosal damage in the intensive care unit. J Intensive Care Med 5:26–32
41. Khorvash F, Abbasi S, Meidani M, Dehdashti F, Ataei B (2014) The comparison between proton pump inhibitors and sucralfate in incidence of ventilator associated pneumonia in critically ill patients. Adv Biomed Res 3:52
42. Kotlyanskaya A, Luka B, Mukherji R (2008) A comparison of lansoprazole disintegrating tablet, lansoprazole suspension or ranitidine for stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 7:A194
43. Labattut AG, Santolalla PM, De Andres AP, Ortigosa AM, Del Mar M, Serrano G, Gimeno OL (1992) Efficacy of sucralfate in the prevention of upper gastrointestinal stress bleeding in intensive care patients: comparison vs a control group. Clin Intensive Care 3:19–25
44. Laggner AN, Lenz K, Base W, Druml W, Schneeweiss B, Grimm G (1989) Prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in long-term ventilated patients. Sucralfate versus ranitidine. Am J Med 86:81–84
45. Laggner AN, Lenz K, Graninger W, Gremmel F, Grimm G, Base W, Schneeweiss B, Sertl K (1988) Stress ulcer prophylaxis in a general intensive care unit: sucralfate versus ranitidine. Anaesthesist 37:704–710
46. Lee T-H, Hung F-M, Yang L-H (2014) Comparison of the efficacy of esomeprazole and famotidine against stress ulcers in a neurosurgical intensive care unit. Adv Dig Med 1:50–53
47. Levy MJ, Seelig CB, Robinson NJ, Ranney JE (1997) Comparison of omeprazole and ranitidine for stress ulcer prophylaxis. Dig Dis Sci 42:1255–1259
48. Lin CC, Hsu YL, Chung CS, Lee TH (2016) Stress ulcer prophylaxis in patients being weaned from the ventilator in a respiratory care center: a randomized control trial. J Formos Med Assoc 115:19–24
49. Liu BL, Li B, Zhang X, Fei Z, Hu SJ, Lin W, Gao DK, Zhang L (2013) A randomized controlled study comparing omeprazole and cimetidine for the prophylaxis of stress-related upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 118:115–120
50. Macdougall BR, Bailey RJ, Williams R (1977) H2-receptor antagonists and antacids in the prevention of acute gastrointestinal haemorrhage in fulminant hepatic failure. Two controlled trials. Lancet 1:617–619
51. Martin LF, Booth FV, Karlstadt RG, Silverstein JH, Jacobs DM, Hampsey J, Bowman SC, D’Ambrosio CA, Rockhold FW (1993) Continuous intravenous cimetidine decreases stress-related upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage without promoting pneumonia. Crit Care Med 21:19–30
52. Metz CA, Livingston DH, Smith JS, Larson GM, Wilson TH (1993) Impact of multiple risk factors and ranitidine prophylaxis on the development of stress-related upper gastrointestinal bleeding: a prospective, multicenter, double-blind, randomized trial. The Ranitidine Head Injury Study Group. Crit Care Med 21:1844–1849
53. Misra UK, Kalita J, Pandey S, Mandal SK, Srivastava M (2005) A randomized placebo controlled trial of ranitidine versus sucralfate in patients with spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage for prevention of gastric hemorrhage. J Neurol Sci 239:5–10
54. Mustafa NA, Akturk G, Ozen I, Koksal I, Erciyes N, Solak M (1995) Acute stress bleeding prophylaxis with sucralfate versus ranitidine and incidence of secondary pneumonia in intensive care unit patients. Intensive Care Med 21:287
55. Pan X, Zhang W, Li Z, Xu G, Yin N, Wang D, Shi X (2004) The preventive effects of rabeprazole on upper gastrointestinal tract hemorrhage in patients with severe acute pancreatitis. Chin J Gastroenterol 9:30–32
56. Peura DA, Johnson LF (1985) Cimetidine for prevention and treatment of gastroduodenal mucosal lesions in patients in an intensive care unit. Ann Intern Med 103:173–177
57. Phillips JO, Metzler MH, Huckfeldt RE, Olsen K (1998) A multicenter, prospective, randomized clinical trial of continuous infusion IV ranitidine vs. omeprazole suspension in the prophylaxis of stress ulcers. Crit Care Med 26:101A
58. Pickworth KK, Falcone RE, Hoogeboom JE, Santanello SA (1993) Occurrence of nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated trauma patients: a comparison of sucralfate and ranitidine. Crit Care Med 21:1856–1862
59. Powell H, Morgan M, Li SK, Baron JH (1993) Inhibition of gastric acid secretion in the intensive care unit after coronary artery bypass graft. A pilot control study of intravenous omeprazole by bolus and infusion, ranitidine and placebo. Theor Surg 8:125–130
60. Prakash S, Rai A, Gogia AR, Prakash S (2008) Nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients receiving ranitidine or sucralfate as stress ulcer prophylaxis. Indian J Anaesth 52:179–184
61. Prod’hom G, Leuenberger P, Koerfer J, Blum A, Chiolero R, Schaller MD, Perret C, Spinnler O, Blondel J, Siegrist H, Saghafi L, Blanc D, Francioli P (1994) Nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients receiving antacid, ranitidine, or sucralfate as prophylaxis for stress ulcer. A randomized controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 120:653–662
62. Reusser P, Gyr K, Scheidegger D, Buchmann B, Buser M, Zimmerli W (1990) Prospective endoscopic study of stress erosions and ulcers in critically ill neurosurgical patients: current incidence and effect of acid-reducing prophylaxis. Crit Care Med 18:270–274
63. Risaliti A, Terrosu G, Uzzau A, Petri R, Intini S, Carcoforo P, Noce L, Anania G, Cedolini C, Soro P (1993) Intravenous omeprazole vs ranitidine in the prophylaxis of stress ulcers. Acta Chirurgica Italica 49:397–401
64. Ruiz-Santana S, Ortiz E, Gonzalez B, Bolanos J, Ruiz-Santana AJ, Manzano JL (1991) Stress-induced gastroduodenal lesions and total parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients: frequency, complications, and the value of prophylactic treatment. A prospective, randomized study. Crit Care Med 19:887–891
65. Ryan P, Dawson J, Teres D, Celoria G, Navab F (1993) Nosocomial pneumonia during stress ulcer prophylaxis with cimetidine and sucralfate. Arch Surg 128:1353–1357
66. Selvanderan SP, Summers MJ, Finnis ME, Plummer MP, Ali Abdelhamid Y, Anderson MB, Chapman MJ, Rayner CK, Deane AM (2016) Pantoprazole or placebo for stress ulcer prophylaxis (POP-UP): randomized double-blind exploratory study. Crit Care Med 44:1842–1850
67. Simms HH, De Maria E, McDonald L, Peterson D, Robinson A, Burchard KW (1991) Role of gastric colonization in the development of pneumonia in critically ill trauma patients: results of a prospective randomized trial. J Trauma 31:531–536
68. Solouki M, Mar’ashian SM, Koochak M, Nasiri A, Mokhtari M, Amirpour A (2009) Ventilator-associated pneumonia among ICU patients receiving mechanical ventilation and prophylaxis of gastrointestinal bleeding. Iran J Clinical Infect Dis 4:177–180
69. Solouki M, Marashian SM, Kouchak M, Mokhtari M, Nasiri E (2009) Comparison between the preventive effects of ranitidine and omeprazole on upper gastrointestinal bleeding among ICU patients. Tanaffos 8:37–42
70. Somberg L, Morris J Jr, Fantus R, Graepel J, Field BG, Lynn R, Karlstadt R (2008) Intermittent intravenous pantoprazole and continuous cimetidine infusion: effect on gastric pH control in critically ill patients at risk of developing stress-related mucosal disease. J Trauma 64:1202–1210
71. Thomason MH, Payseur ES, Hakenewerth AM, Norton HJ, Mehta B, Reeves TR, Moore-Swartz MW, Robbins PI (1996) Nosocomial pneumonia in ventilated trauma patients during stress ulcer prophylaxis with sucralfate, antacid, and ranitidine. J Trauma 41:503–508
72. Tryba M, Zevounou F, Grabhoefer P, Seifert V, Torok M (1984) Prevention of acute stress hemorrhages of the upper gastrointestinal tract with pirenzepine and antacids. A controlled comparison between pirenzepine and cimetidine. Anasth Intensivther Notfallmed 19:240–244
73. van den Berg B, van Blankenstein M (1985) Prevention of stress-induced upper gastrointestinal bleeding by cimetidine in patients on assisted ventilation. Digestion 31:1–8
74. Wee B, Liu CH, Cohen H, Kravchuk S, Reddy K, Mukherji R (2013) 731: IV Famotidine vs. IV Pantoprazole for stress ulcer prevention in the ICU: a prospective Study. Crit Care Med 41:A181
75. Zinner MJ, Zuidema GD, Smith P, Mignosa M (1981) The prevention of upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding in patients in an intensive care unit. Surg Gynecol Obstet 153:214–220
76. Giuliano C, Wilhelm SM, Kale-Pradhan PB (2012) Are proton pump inhibitors associated with the development of community-acquired pneumonia? A meta-analysis. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 5:337–344
77. Johnstone J, Nerenberg K, Loeb M (2010) Meta-analysis: proton pump inhibitor use and the risk of community-acquired pneumonia. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 31:1165–1177
78. Herzig SJ, Howell MD, Ngo LH, Marcantonio ER (2009) Acid-suppressive medication use and the risk for hospital-acquired pneumonia. JAMA 301:2120–2128
79. MacLaren R, Kassel LE, Kiser TH, Fish DN (2015) Proton pump inhibitors and histamine-2 receptor antagonists in the intensive care setting: focus on therapeutic and adverse events. Expert Opin Drug Saf 14:269–280
80. Tryba M, Mantey-Stiers F (1987) Antibacterial activity of sucralfate in human gastric juice. Am J Med 83:125–127
81. Welage L, Carver P, Welch K (1994) Antibacterial activity of sucralfate versus aluminum chloride in simulated gastric fluid. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 13:1046–1052
82. West AP, Abdul S, Sherratt MJ, Inglis TJ (1993) Antibacterial activity of sucralfate against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in batch and continuous culture. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 12:869–871
83. Barkun AN, Adam V, Martel M, Bardou M (2013) Cost-effectiveness analysis: stress ulcer bleeding prophylaxis with proton pump inhibitors, H2 receptor antagonists. Value Health 16:14–22
84. Marik PE, Vasu T, Hirani A, Pachinburavan M (2010) Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the new millennium: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 38:2222–2228
85. Huang J, Cao Y, Liao C, Wu L, Gao F (2010) Effect of histamine-2-receptor antagonists versus sucralfate on stress ulcer prophylaxis in mechanically ventilated patients: a meta-analysis of 10 randomized controlled trials. Crit Care 14:R194
86. Alquraini M, Alshamsi F, Moller MH, Belley-Cote E, Almenawer S, Jaeschke R, MacLaren R, Alhazzani W (2017) Sucralfate versus histamine 2 receptor antagonists for stress ulcer prophylaxis in adult critically ill patients: a meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized trials. J Crit Care 40:21–30
87. Alshamsi F, Belley-Cote E, Cook D, Almenawer SA, Alqahtani Z, Perri D, Thabane L, Al-Omari A, Lewis K, Guyatt G, Alhazzani W (2016) Efficacy and safety of proton pump inhibitors for stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Crit Care 20:120
88. Lambert PC, Sutton AJ, Burton PR, Abrams KR, Jones DR (2005) How vague is vague? A simulation study of the impact of the use of vague prior distributions in MCMC using WinBUGS. Stat Med 24:2401–2428
89. Nair GB, Niederman MS (2015) Ventilator-associated pneumonia: present understanding and ongoing debates. Intensive Care Med 41:34–48
90. MacLaren R, Reynolds PM, Allen RR (2014) Histamine-2 receptor antagonists vs proton pump inhibitors on gastrointestinal tract hemorrhage and infectious complications in the intensive care unit. JAMA Intern Med 174:564–574