Combatting police discrimination in the age of big data

New Criminal Law Review

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 2017, Pages 181-232

  Goel, Sharad ^a   Perelman, Maya ^b   Shroff, Ravi ^c   Sklansky, David Alan ^d  

^a Stanford University   (United States)

^b United States District Judge Jesus Bernal   (United States)

^c NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d STANFORD LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

Big data; Discrimination; Police; Statistical proof; Stop and frisk

Indexed keywords

EID: 85025471535     PISSN: 19334192     EISSN: 19334206     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/nclr.2017.20.2.181     Document Type: Review

References (168)

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13. Brown v. Texas, 443 U.S. 47, 51 (1979);
14. Illinois v. Wardlow, 528 U.S. 119, 123 (2000).
15. E.g., Rodriguez v. United States, 575 U.S. --, 135 S. Ct. 1609, 1613 (2015);
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17. Terry, 391 U.S. at 27;
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30. See, e.g., Washington v. Davis, 426 U.S. 229 (1976).
31. McCleskey, 481 U.S. 279 (1987).
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33. See, e.g., Joscha Legewie, Racial Profiling in Stop-and-Frisk Operations: How Local Events Trigger Periods of Increased Discrimination, AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY, (forthcoming 2016)
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40. Illinois v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213 (1983).
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44. Brown v. Texas, 443 U.S. 47, 51 (1979).
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46. 42 U.S.C. § 14141, enacted in 1994
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49. Terry, 391 U.S. at 16-17.
50. Minnesota v. Dickerson, 508 U.S. 366, 372-73 (1993).
51. See, e.g., Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 413 U.S. 266 (1973)
52. United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873 (1975)
53. Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 663 (1979)
54. City of Indianapolis v. Edmond, 531 U.S. 32, 34 (2000)
55. Ferguson v. City of Charleston, 532 U.S. 67, 74 (2001).
56. Edmond, 531 U.S. at 34.
57. United States v. Arvizu, 534 U.S. 266, 274 (2002).
58. United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 2 (1989)
59. Arvizu, 534 U.S. at 277.
60. United States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411, 417-18 (1981)
61. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. at 884-85.
62. United States v. Montero-Camargo, 208 F.3d 1122, 1132 (9th Cir. 2000).
63. Illinois v. Wardlow, 528 U.S. 119, 124 (2000)
64. United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 2, 10 (1989)
65. See, e.g., Terry, 391 U.S. at 4
66. Cortez, 449 U.S. at 418.
67. State v. Glover, No. 83-333, 1984 WL 7849, at ∗3 (Ohio Ct. App. Apr. 20, 1984).
68. United States v. Johnson, 364 F.3d 1185, 1189-90 (10th Cir. 2004)
69. United States v. Villa-Chaparro, 115 F.3d 797, 801 (10th Cir. 1997)
70. Whren, 517 U.S. 806.
71. Ashcroft v. al-Kidd, 563 U.S. 731, --;
72. 113 S. Ct. 2074, 2081 (2011).
73. Washington v. Davis, 426 U.S. 229 (1976).
74. Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 429 U.S. 252, 264-65 (1977).
75. Hunter, 471 U.S. 222, 227, 229 (1985).
76. Wayte, 470 U.S. 598, 610 (1985)
77. Armstrong, 517 U.S. 456, 458 (1996).
78. White v. Williams, 179 F. Supp. 2 d 405, 418 at n. 5 (D.N.J. 2002).
79. United States v. Arenas-Ortiz, 339 F.3d 1066 (9th Cir. 2003);
80. United States v. Hendrickson, 664 F. Supp. 2 d 793, 799 (E.D. Mich. 2009);
81. Marc Price Wolf, Proving Race Discrimination in Criminal Cases Using Statistical Evidence, 4 HASTINGS RACE & POVERTY L.J. 395, 416 (2007).
82. See, e.g., United States v. Mesa-Roche, 288 F. Supp. 2 d 1172, 1186-87 (D. Kan. 2003).
83. F. Supp. 2d at 603-05.
84. Yick Wo, 118 U.S. 356 (1886).
85. McCleskey, 481 U.S. 279.
86. Mesa-Roche, 288 F. Supp. 2 d 1172 (D. Kan. 2003).
87. Duque-Nava, 315 F. Supp. 2 d 1144, 1163 (D. Kan. 2004).
88. Chavez, 251 F.3d 612, 645 (7th Cir. 2001)
89. Anderson, 355 F.3d 1021 (7th Cir. 2004)
90. Avery, 137 F.3d 343 (1997).
91. Johnson, 2015 WL 4715312 (M.D.N.C., Aug. 7, 2015, 1:12CV1349)
92. In re Death Penalty Claims, 2013 WL 5879422, at ∗24 (Conn. Super. Oct. 11, 2013) (unpublished opinion).
93. Soto, 324 N.J. Super. 66 (Ch. Div. 1996)
94. See United States v. Barlow, 310 U.S. 1007 (7th Cir. 2002);
95. Commonwealth v. Lora, 886 N.E.2d 688 (Mass. 2008).
96. Johnson, 2015 WL 4715312, at ∗48.
97. See Chavez, 251 F.3d at 640-44.
98. Anderson, 355 F.3d at 1023-25.
99. Johnson, 2015 WL 4715312, at ∗81.
100. Avery, 137 F.3d at 357.
101. Mesa-Roche, 288 F. Supp. 2 d at 1196-97.
102. U.S. COMM'N ON CIVIL RIGHTS, POLICE PRACTICES AND CIVIL RIGHTS IN NEW YORK CITY, ch. 5, n. 62 (2000), www.usccr.gov/pubs/nypolice/ch5.htm.
103. N.Y. STATE OFFICE OF THE ATTORNEY GEN'L, THE NEW YORK CITY POLICE DEPARTMENT'S "STOP & FRISK" PRACTICES (1999).
104. Christine Hauser, Police Told to Give Street-Stop Data, N.Y. TIMES, May 31, 2008.
105. Floyd, 959 F. Supp. 2 d at 608.
106. United States v. City of Los Angeles, No. 00-11769 GAF, Consent Decree, § 3 (C.D. Cal. 2001)
107. Bailey v. City of Philadelphia, No. 10-5952, Settlement Agreement, Class Certification, and Consent Decree, at 3 (E.D. Pa 2011).
108. See ACLU OF ILLINOIS, STOP AND FRISK IN CHICAGO (2015).
109. Submission of Second Report of Independent Monitor, Floyd v. City of New York, 08-CV-1034, No. 523 (Feb. 16, 2016).
110. Letter from Harvey Grossman, Legal Dir., ACLU of Illinois, to Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel, Jan. 15, 2013, www.aclu-il.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Letter-to- Emanuel-Patton-McCarthy-1-15-13.pdf.
111. Arun Rath, Taking on Racial Profiling with Data, NPR, Dec. 14, 2014, www.wbur. org/npr/370792960/taking-on-racial-profiling-with-data;
112. Phillip Atiba Goff, Police Behavior Database: Why One Doesn't Exist and Why One Soon Will, THE NEW REPUBLIC, August 14, 2014.
113. Richard A. Oppel, Jr., Activists Wield Search Data to Challenge and Change Police Policy, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 20, 2014.
114. Center for Policing Equity, Justice Database, policingequity.org;
115. see also Center for Policing Equity, Press Release: Nation's First Police Profiling Database Awarded Grant by NSF, Nov. 7, 2013;
116. U.S. Dep't of Justice, Office of Public Affairs, Justice Department Announces National Effort to Build Trust Between Law Enforcement and the Communities They Serve, Sept. 18, 2014, www.justice.gov/opa/pr/ justice-department-announcesnational- effort-build-trust-between-law-enforcement-and.
117. See Brady Dale, Stanford Traffic Stops Database Will Let Public Analyze Racial Profiling, OBSERVER, Feb. 1, 2016.
118. See, e.g., San Diego Police to Cull Racial Data During Stops, SAN DIEGO UNIONTRIBUNE, Jan. 22, 2014.
119. Floyd, 959 F. Supp. 2 d at 575, 579-80, 614.
120. Jeffrey Fagan & Amanda Geller, Following the Script: Narratives of Suspicion in Terry Stops in Street Policing, 82 U. CHI. L. REV. 51, 55 (2015);
121. accord, Floyd, 959 F. Supp. 2 d at 581.
122. Floyd, 959 F. Supp. 2 d at
123. Terry, 391 U.S. at 14 n.11.
124. 392 U.S. at 14 n.11
125. LAWRENCE P. TIFFANY, DONALD M. MCINTYRE, & DONALD L. ROTENBERG, DETECTION OF CRIME: STOPPING AND QUESTIONING, SEARCH AND SEIZURE, ENCOURAGEMENT AND ENTRAPMENT 47-48 (1967).
126. 392 U.S. at 30.
127. Davis, 426 U.S. at 246;
128. Feeney, 442 U.S. at 273-75
129. 481 U.S. at 327.
130. See, e.g., Chavez v. Ill. State Police, 251 F.3d 612 (7th Cir. 2001);
131. United States v. Alcaraz-Arellano, 302 F. Supp. 2 d 1217 (D. Kan. 2004).
132. McCleskey, 481 U.S. at 292-93.
133. United States v. Avery, 137 F.3d 343, 355 (1997) (internal citations omitted).
134. Floyd, 959 F. Supp. 2 d at 632-33.
135. Avery, 137 F.3d at 355.
136. United States v. Travis, 62 F. 3 d 170, 174 (6th Cir. 1995)).
137. Hunter v. Underwood, 471 U.S. 222, 225 (1985)
138. United States v. City of Yonkers, 96 F.3d 600, 611-12 (2d Cir. 1996)
139. McDonnell Douglas Corp. V. Green, 411 U.S. 792, 804-05 (1973)
140. Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U.S. 79, 96-97 (1986).
141. U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, GUIDANCE FOR FEDERAL LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES REGARDING THE USE OF SEX, RACE, ETHNICITY, GENDER, NATIONAL ORIGIN, RELIGION, SEXUAL ORIENTATION, OR GENDER IDENTITY (2014), www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/ ag/pages/attachments/2014/12/08/use-of-race-policy.pdf.
142. United States v. Montero-Camargo, 208 F.3d 1122, 1138 (9th Cir. 2000).
143. See also United States v. Caruthers, 458 F.3d 459, 467 (6th Cir. 2006)
144. RONALD DWORKIN, TAKING RIGHTS SERIOUSLY 272-23 (1977);
145. see also, e.g., Matthew D. Adler, Rights Against Rules: The Moral Structure of American Constitutional Law, 97 MICH. L. REV. 1, 116 & n.386 (1998);
146. Ronald Dworkin, Unenumerated Rights: Whether and How Roe Should Be Overruled, 59 U. CHI. L. REV. 381, 387-88 (1992);
147. Kim Forde-Mazrui, Tradition as Justification: The Case of Opposite-Sex Marriage, 78 U. CHI. L. REV. 281 (2011).
148. Wayte v. United States, 470 U.S. 598, 610 (1985)
149. Personnel Administrator v. Feeney, 442 U.S. 256, 279 (1979).
150. United States v. Turner, 104 F.3d 1180, 1184-85 (9th Cir. 1997);
151. see also United States v. Thorpe, 2007 WL 4239201, at ∗1 (E.D. Mich. Dec. 3, 2007)
152. Pollard v. Wawa Food Market, 366 F. Supp. 2 d 247, 253 (E.D. Pa. 2005)
153. South Camden Citizens in Action v. N.J. Dep't of Envtl. Prot., 254 F. Supp. 2 d 486, 495 (D.N.J. 2003);
154. see also Garvey ex rel. Doe v. Unified Sch. Dist. 262, 2005 WL 2548332, at ∗2 (D. Kan. Oct. 12, 2005)
155. Almendares v. Palmer, 284 F. Supp. 2 d 799, 808 (N.D. Ohio 2003)
156. Floyd, 959 F.Supp.2d at 564, 590.
157. See, e.g., City of Canton v. Harris, 489 U.S. 378, 388-89 (1989)
158. Illinois v. Wardlow, 528 U.S. 119, 124-25 (2000).
159. Orin Kerr, Why Courts Should Not Quantify Probable Cause, in THE POLITICAL HEART OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE: ESSAYS ON THEMES OF WILLIAM J. STUNTZ 131 (Michael Klarman et al. eds, 2012).
160. United States v. Arvizu, 534 U.S. 266, 274 (2002)
161. Michigan Dep't of State Police v. Sitz, 496 U.S. 444, 455 (1990).
162. United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. 543, 554 (1976)
163. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. at 558.
164. See Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. at 559
165. Navarette v. California, 134 S. Ct. 1683, 1695 (2014) (Scalia, J., dissenting).
166. Anderson, 355 F.3d at 1021.
167. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 661 (1979).
168. Whren, 517 U.S. at 813.