Hand washing promotion for preventing diarrhoea

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

Volumn 2015, Issue 9, 2015, Pages

  Ejemot Nwadiaro, Regina I ^a   Ehiri, John E ^b   Arikpo, Dachi ^a   Meremikwu, Martin M ^a   Critchley, Julia A ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALABAR   (Nigeria)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA   (United States)

^c ST GEORGE'S UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; BEHAVIOR CHANGE; CAUSE OF DEATH; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DAY CARE; DIARRHEA; EFFECT SIZE; HAND WASHING; HEALTH CARE FACILITY; HEALTH PROGRAM; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; MORTALITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; ADULT; CHILD; COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED INFECTIONS; CROSS INFECTION; DEVELOPED COUNTRY; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; HAND DISINFECTION; META ANALYSIS; PROCEDURES; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); SCHOOL;

SOAP;

ADULT; CHILD; CHILD DAY CARE CENTERS; COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED INFECTIONS; CROSS INFECTION; DEVELOPED COUNTRIES; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; DIARRHEA; HAND DISINFECTION; HUMANS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; SCHOOLS; SOAPS;

EID: 85017014804     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1469493X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004265.pub3     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Bartlett AV, Jarvis BA, Ross V, Katz TM, Dalia MA, Englender SJ, et al. Diarrheal illness among infants and toddlers in day care centers: effects of active surveillance and stafftraining without subsequent monitoring. American Journal of Epidemiology 1988;127(4):808-17.
2. Black RE, Dykes AC, Anderson KE, Wells JG, Sinclair SP, Gary GW Jr, et al. Handwashing to prevent diarrhea in day-care centers. American Journal of Epidemiology 1981;113(4):445-51.
3. Bowen A, Ma H, Ou J, Billhimer W, Long T, Mintz E, et al. A cluster-randomized controlled trial evaluating the effect of a handwashing-promotion program in Chinese primary schools. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2007;76(6):1166-73.
4. Butz AM, Larson E, Fosarelli P, Yolken R. Occurrence of infectious symptoms in children in day care homes. American Journal of Infection Control 1990;18(6):347-53.
5. Carabin H, Gyorkos TW, Soto JC, Joseph L, Payment P, Collect JP. Effectiveness of a training program in reducing infections in toddlers attending day care centers. Epidemiology 1999;10(3):219-27.
6. Haggerty PA, Muladi K, Kirkwood BR, Ashworth A, Manunebo M. Community-based hygiene education to reduce diarrhoeal disease in rural Zaire: impact of the intervention on diarrhoeal morbidity. International Journal of Epidemiology 1994;23(5):1050-9.
7. Han AM, Hlaing T. Prevention of diarrhoea and dysentery by hand washing. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1989;83(1):128-31.
8. Hartinger S, Hattendorf J, Lanata C, Gil A, Verastegui H, Mausezahl D. Integrating home-based environmental interventions (IHIP): A community-randomised trial to improve indoor air pollution, drinking water quality and child nutrition in rural Peru. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2011;Supplement 16:354-5.
9. Hartinger SM, Lanata CF, Hattendorf J, Gil AI, Verastegui H, Ochoa T, et al. A community randomized controlled trial evaluating a home-based environmental intervention package of improved stoves, solar water disinfection and kitchen sinks in rural Peru: rationale, trial design and baseline findings. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2011;32(6):864-73.
10. Huang DB, Zhou J. Effect of intensive handwashing in the prevention of diarrhoeal illness among patients with AIDS: a randomized controlled study. Journal of Medical Microbiology 2007;56(Pt 5):659-63.
11. Kotch JB, Weigle KA, Weber DJ, Clifford RM, Harms TO, Loda FA, et al. Evaluation of an hygienic intervention in child day-care centers. Pediatrics 1994;94(6 Pt 2):991-4.
12. Kotch JB, Isbell P, Weber DJ, Nguyen V, Savage E, Gunn E, et al. Hand-washing and diapering equipment reduces disease among children in out-of-home child care centers. Pediatrics 2007;120(1):e29-36.
13. Ladegaard MB, Stage V. Hand-hygiene and sickness among small children attending day care centres. An intervention study [Handhygiejne og smabornssygelighed i daginstitutioner: En interventionsundersogelse]. Ugeskrift for Laeger 1999;161(31):4396-400.
14. Langford R, Lunn P, Panter-Brick C. Hand-washing, subclinical infections, and growth: a longitudinal evaluation of an intervention in Nepali slums. America Journal of Human Biology 2011;23(5):621-9.
15. Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Feikin DR, Painter J, Billhimer W, Altaf A, et al. Effect of handwashing in child health: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;366(9481):225-33.
16. Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Painter J, Altaf A, Billhimer WL, Hoekstra RM. Effect of intensive handwashing promotion on childhood diarrhea in high-risk communities in Pakistan: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004;291(21):2547-54.
17. Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Painter J, Altaf A, Billhimer W, Keswick B, et al. Combining drinking water treatment and hand washing for diarrhea prevention, a cluster randomised control trial. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2006;11(4):479-89.
18. Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Bowen A, Kenah E, Sharker Y, Hoekstra RM. Difficulties in maintaining improved handwashing behavior, Karachi, Pakistan. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2009;81(1):140-5.
19. Nicholson JA, Naeeni M, HoptroffM, Matheson JR, Roberts AJ, Taylor D, et al. An investigation of the effects of a hand washing intervention on health outcomes and school absence using a randomised trial in Indian urban communities. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2014;19(3):284-92.
20. Pickering AJ, Davis J, Blum AG, Scalmanini J, Oyier B, Okoth G, et al. Access to waterless hand sanitizer improves student hand hygiene behavior in primary schools in Nairobi, Kenya. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2013;89(3):411-8.
21. Roberts L, Jorm L, Patel M, Smith W, Douglas RM, McGilchrist C. Effect of infection control measures on the frequency of diarrheal episodes in child care: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics 2000;105(4 Pt 1):743-6.
22. Stanton BF, Clemens JD. An educational intervention for altering water-sanitation behaviors to reduce childhood diarrhea in urban Bangladesh. II. A randomized trial to assess the impact of the intervention on hygienic behaviors and rates of diarrhea. American Journal of Epidemiology 1987;125(2):292-301.
23. Talaat M, AfifiS, Dueger E, El-Ashry N, Marfin A, Kandeel A, et al. Effects of hand hygiene campaigns on incidence of laboratory-confirmed influenza and absenteeism in school children, Cairo, Egypt. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2011;17(4):619-25.
24. Zomer TP, Erasmus V, Looman CW, Tjon-a-Tsien A, van Beeck EF, De Graaf JM, et al. A hand hygiene intervention to reduce infections in child daycare: a randomized controlled trial. Epidemiology and Infection 2015 Jan 8 [Epub ahead of print]:1-9.
25. Ahmed NU, Zeitlin MF, Beiser AS, Super CM, GershoffSN. A longitudinal study of the impact of behavioural change intervention on cleanliness, diarrhoeal morbidity and growth of children in rural Bangladesh. Social Science & Medicine 1993;37(2):159-71.
26. Aiello AE, Coulborn RM, Perez V, Larson EL. Effect of hand hygiene on infectious disease risk in the community setting: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Public Health 2008;98(8):1372-81.
27. Alam N, Wojtyniak B, Henry FJ, Rahaman MM. Mothers' personal and domestic hygiene and diarrhoea incidence in young children in rural Bangladesh. International Journal of Epidemiology 1989;18(1):242-7.
28. Arnold B, Arana B, Mäusezahl D, Hubbard A, Colford JM Jr. Evaluation of a pre-existing, 3-year household water treatment and handwashing intervention in rural Guatemala. International Journal of Epidemiology 2009;38(6):1651-61.
29. Arnold BF, Null C, Luby SP, Unicomb L, Stewart CP, Dewey KG, et al. Cluster-randomised controlled trials of individual and combined water, sanitation, hygiene and nutritional interventions in rural Bangladesh and Kenya: the WASH Benefits study design and rationale. BMJ Open 2013;3(8):e003476.
30. Azor-Martinez E, Cobos-Carrascosa E, Gimenez-Sanchez F, Martinez-Lopez JM, Garrido-Fernandez P, Santisteban-Martinez J, Seijas-Vazquez ML, Campos-Fernandez MA, Bonillo-Perales A. Effectiveness of a multifactorial handwashing program to reduce school absenteeism due to acute gastroenteritis. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 2014;33(2):e34-9.
31. Barros AJ, Ross DA, Fonseca WV, Williams LA, Moreira-Filho DC. Preventing acute respiratory infections and diarrhoea in child care centres. Acta Paediatrica 1999;88(10):1113-8.
32. Bieri FA, Gray DJ, Williams GM, Raso G, Li YS, Yuan L, et al. Health-education package to prevent worm infections in Chinese schoolchildren. New England Journal of Medicine 2013;368(17):1603-12.
33. Biran A, Schmidt WP, Wright R, Jones T, Seshadri M, Isaac P, et al. The effect of a soap promotion and hygiene education campaign on handwashing behaviour in rural India: a cluster randomised trial. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2009;14(10):1303-14.
34. Biran A, Schmidt WP, Varadharajan KS, Rajaraman D, Kumar R, Greenland K, et al. Effect of a behaviour-change intervention on handwashing with soap in India (SuperAmma): a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet Global Health 2014;2(3):e145-54.
35. Boubacar Maïnassara H, Tohon Z. Assessing the health impact of the following measures in schools in Maradi (Niger): Construction of latrines, clean water supply, establishment of hand washing stations, and health education. Journal of Parasitology Research 2014;2014:190451.
36. Bowen A, Agboatwalla M, Luby S, Tobery T, Ayers T, Hoekstra R. Association between intensive handwashing promotion and child development in Karachi, Pakistan: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2012;166(11):1037-44.
37. Bowen A, Agboatwalla M, Ayers T, Tobery T, Tariq M, Luby S. Sustained improvements in handwashing indicators more than 5 years after a cluster-randomised, community-based trial of handwashing promotion in Karachi, Pakistan. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2013;18(3):259-67.
38. Burton M, Cobb E, Donachie P, Judah G, Curtis V, Schmidt WP. The effect of handwashing with water or soap on bacterial contamination of hands. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2011;8(1):97-104.
39. Caruso BA, Freeman MC, Garn JV, Dreibelbis R, Saboori S, Muga R, Rheingans R. Assessing the impact of a school-based latrine cleaning and handwashing program on pupil absence in Nyanza Province, Kenya: a cluster-randomized trial. Tropical Medicine and International Health 2014;19(10):1185-97.
40. Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP. Effectiveness of a rural sanitation programme on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: A cluster-randomised trial. Lancet Global Health 2014;2:e645-53.
41. Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Jenkins M, Freeman M. The effectiveness of a rural sanitation intervention on health and ORISSA, India: A cluster randomized, controlled trial. 63rd Annual Meeting of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (ASTMH); 20141102-06; New Orleans, In: American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2014;91(5 SUPPL):215.
42. Clemens JD, Stanton BF. An educational intervention for altering water-sanitation behaviors to reduce childhood diarrhea in urban Bangladesh. 1. Application of the case-control method for development of an intervention. American Journal of Epidemiology 1987;125(2):284-91.
43. Contzen N, Meili IH, Mosler HJ. Changing handwashing behaviour in southern Ethiopia: a longitudinal study on infrastructural and commitment interventions. Social Science and Medicine 2015;124:103-114.
44. Correa JC, Pinto D, Salas LA, Camacho JC, Rondón M, Quintero J. A cluster-randomized controlled trial of handrubs for prevention of infectious diseases among children in Colombia. Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública 2012;31(6):476-484.
45. Curtis V, Kanki B, Cousen S, Diallo I, Kpozehouen A, Sangaré M, et al. Evidence of behaviour change following a hygiene promotion programme in Burkina Faso. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2001;79(6):518-27.
46. Doebbeling BN, Stanley GL, Sheetz CT, Pfaller MA, Houston AK, Annis L, et al. Comparative efficacy of alternative hand-washing agents in reducing nosocomial infections in intensive care units. New England Journal of Medicine 1992;327(2):88-93.
47. Dreibelbis R, Freeman MC, Greene LE, Saboori S, Rheingans R. The impact of school water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions on the health of younger siblings of pupils: a cluster-randomized trial in Kenya. American Journal of Public Health 2014;104(1):e91-7.
48. Dyer DL, Shinder A, Shinder F. Alcohol-free instant hand sanitizer reduces elementary school illness absenteeism. Family Medicine 2000;32(9):633-8.
49. Fan VYM, Mahal A. What prevents child diarrhoea? The impacts of water supply, toilets, and hand-washing in rural India. Journal of Development Effectiveness 2011;3(3):340-70.
50. Freeman MC, Clasen T, Dreibelbis R, Saboori S, Greene LE, Brumback B, et al. The impact of a school-based water supply and treatment, hygiene, and sanitation programme on pupil diarrhoea: a cluster-randomized trial. Epidemiology and Infection 2014;142(2):340-51.
51. Greene LE, Freeman MC, Akoko D, Saboori S, Moe C, Rheingans R. Impact of a school-based hygiene promotion and sanitation intervention on pupil hand contamination in Western Kenya: a cluster randomized trial. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2012;87(3):385-93.
52. Guinan M, McGuckin M, Ali Y. The effect of a comprehensive handwashing program on absenteeism in elementary schools. American Journal of Infection Control 2002;30(4):217-20.
53. Hammond B, Ali Y, Fendler E, Dolan M, Donovan S. Effect of hand sanitizer use on elementary school absenteeism. American Journal of Infection Control 2000;28(5):340-6.
54. Hartinger SM, Lanata CF, Hattendorf J, Gil AI, Verastegui H, Mäusezahl D. A community randomized controlled trial of an integrated home-based intervention improving household-air pollution, drinking water quality and hygiene in rural Peru. 61st Annual Meeting of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (ASTMH); 2012 Nov 11-15; Atlanta. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2012; Vol. 87, issue (5 Suppl 1):285.
55. Hübner NO, Hübner C, Wodny M, Kampf G, Kramer A. Effectiveness of alcohol-based hand disinfectants in a public administration: impact on health and work performance related to acute respiratory symptoms and diarrhoea. BMC Infectious Diseases 2010;10:250.
56. Huda TM, Unicomb L, Johnston RB, Halder AK, Yushuf Sharker MA, Luby SP. Interim evaluation of a large scale sanitation, hygiene and water improvement programme on childhood diarrhea and respiratory disease in rural Bangladesh. Social Science and Medicine 2012;75(4):604-11.
57. Jinadu MK, Adegbenro CA, Esmai AO, Ojo AA, Oyeleye BA. Health promotion intervention for hygienic disposal of children's faeces in a rural area of Nigeria. Health Education Journal 2007;66(3):222-8.
58. Johansen A, Denbaek AM, Bonnesen CT, Due P. The Hi Five study: design of a school-based randomized trial to reduce infections and improve hygiene and well-being among 6-15 year olds in Denmark. BMC Public Health 2015;15:207.
59. Khan MU. Interruption of shigellosis by hand washing. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1982;76(2):164-8.
60. Larson E, Aiello A, Lee LV, Della-Latta P, Gomez-Duarte C, Lin S. Short- and long-term effects of handwashing with antimicrobial or plain soap in the community. Journal of Community Health 2003;28(2):139-50.
61. Larson EL, Lin SX, Gomez-Pichardo C, Della-Latta P. Effect of antibacterial home cleaning and handwashing products on infectious disease symptoms: a randomized, double-blind trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 2004;140(5):321-9.
62. Lee W, Stoeckel J, Jintaganont P, Romanarak T, Kullavanijaya S. The impact of a community based health education program on the incidence of diarrheal disease in Southern Thailand. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 1991;22(4):548-56.
63. Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Raza A, Sobel J, Mintz ED, Baier K, et al. Microbiologic effectiveness of hand washing with soap in an urban squatter settlement, Karachi, Pakistan. Epidemiology and Infection 2001;127(2):237-44.
64. Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Hoekstra RM, Rahbar MH, Billhimer W, Keswick BH. Delayed effectiveness of home-based intervention in reducing childhood diarrhea, Karachi, Pakistan. American Journal of Medicine and Hygiene 2004;71(4):420-7.
65. Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Billhimer W, Hoekstra RM. Field trial of a low cost method to evaluate hand cleanliness. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2007;12(6):765-71.
66. Luby SP, Mendoza C, Keswick BH, Chiller TM, Hoekstra RM. Difficulties in bringing point-of-use water treatment to scale in rural Guatemala. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2008;78(3):382-7.
67. Luby SP, Kadir MA, Yushuf Sharker MA, Yeasmin F, Unicomb L, Sirajul Islam M. A community-randomised controlled trial promoting waterless hand sanitizer and handwashing with soap, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2010;15(12):1508-16.
68. Master D, Hess Longe SH, Dickson H. Scheduled hand washing in an elementary school population. Family Medicine 1997;29(5):336-9.
69. Morton JL, Schultz AA. Healthy Hands: Use of alcohol gel as an adjunct to handwashing in elementary school children. Journal of School Nursing 2004;20(3):161-7.
70. Oughton MT, Loo VG, Dendukuri N, Fenn S, Libman MD. Hand hygiene with soap and water Is superior to alcohol rub and antiseptic wipes for removal of Clostridium difficile. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2009;30(10):939-44.
71. Patel MK, Harris JR, Juliao P, Nygren B, Were V, Kola S, et al. Impact of a hygiene curriculum and the installation of simple handwashing and drinking water stations in rural Kenyan primary schools on student health and hygiene practices. American Journal Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2012;87(4):594-601.
72. Peterson EA, Roberts L, Toole MJ, Peterson DE. Effect of soap distribution on diarrhoea: Nyamithuthu Refugee Camp. International Journal of Epidemiology 1998;27(3):520-4.
73. Pinfold JV, Horan NJ. Measuring the effect of a hygiene behaviour intervention by indicators of behaviour and diarrhoeal disease. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 1996;90(4):366-71.
74. Priest P, McKenzie JE, Audas R, Poore M, Brunton C, Reeves L. Hand sanitizer provision for reducing illness absences in primary school children: a cluster randomised trial. PLoS Medicine 2014;11(8):e1001700.
75. Rosen L, Zucker D, Brody D, Engelhard D, Manor O. The effect of a handwashing intervention on preschool educator beliefs, attitudes, knowledge and self-efficacy. Health Education Resources 2009;24(4):686-98.
76. Saboori S, Greene LE, Moe CL, Freeman MC, Caruso BA, Akoko D, et al. Impact of regular soap provision to primary schools on hand washing and E. coli hand contamination among pupils in Nyanza Province, Kenya: a cluster-randomized trial. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2013;89(4):698-708.
77. Savolainen-Kopra C, Haapakoski J, Peltola PA, Ziegler T, Korpela T, Anttila P, et al. Hand washing with soap and water together with behavioural recommendations prevents infections in common work environment: an open cluster-randomized trial. Trials 2012;13:10.
78. Shafique S, Jalal CSB, Jolly SP, Shikder H, Sellen DW, Zlotkin S. Effects of water-based hand sanitizers and micronutrient powders along with nutrition and hygiene education to prevent infections and linear growth faltering among low birth weight infants in Bangladesh. FASEB Journal Conference 2013;27(Meeting Abstract Supplement):243.1.
79. Shahid NS, Greenough WB 3rd, Samadi AR, Huq MI, Rahaman N. Handwashing with soap reduces diarrhoea and spread of bacterial pathogens in a Bangladesh village. Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Research 1996;14(2):85-9.
80. Sircar BK, Sengupta PG, Mondal SK, Gupta DN, Saha NC, Ghosh S, et al. Effect of handwashing on the incidence of diarrhoea in a Calcutta slum. Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Research 1987;5(2):112-4.
81. Slayton RB, Murphy JL, Faith SH, Oremo J, Odhiambo A, Ayers T, et al. A cluster randomized controlled evaluation of the health impact of a novel antimicrobial hand towel on the health of children under two years old in rural communities in Nyanza province, Kenya. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (Conference Publication) 2013;85(Suppl 1):314.
82. Vindigni SM, Riley PL, Jhung M. Systematic review: handwashing behaviour in low- to middle-income countries: outcome measures and behaviour maintenance. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2011;16(4):466-77.
83. White C, Kolble R, Carlson R, Lipson N, Dolan M, Ali Y, et al. The effect of hand hygiene on illness rate among students in university residence halls. American Journal of Infection Control 2003;31(6):364-70.
84. Wilson JM, Chandler GN. Sustained improvements in hygiene behaviour amongst village women in Lombok, Indonesia. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1993;87(6):615-6.
85. Wilson JM, Chandler GN, Muslihatun, Jamiluddin. Hand-washing reduces diarrhoea episodes: a study in Lombok, Indonesia. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1991;85(6):819-21.
86. Zhang C, Mosa AJ, Hayward AS, Matthews SA. Promoting clean hands among children in Uganda: a school-based intervention using 'tippy-taps'. Public Health 2013;127(6):586-9.
87. Zomer TP, Erasmus V, Vlaar N, van Beeck EF, Tjon-A-Tsien A, Richardus JH, et al. A hand hygiene intervention to decrease infections among children attending day care centers: design of a cluster randomized controlled trial. BMC Infectious Diseases 2013;13:259.
88. Cave B, Curtis V. Effectiveness of promotional techniques in environmental health. WELL Study. Task No.165. March 1999. www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/well-studies/full-reports-pdf/task0165.pdf (accessed 1 September 2007).
89. Claessen J-P, Bates S, Sherlock K, Seeparsand F, Wright R. Designing interventions to improve tooth brushing. International Dental Journal 2008;58:307-20.
90. Curtis V, Cairncross S, Yonli R. Domestic hygiene and diarrhoea - pinpointing the problem. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2000;5(1):22-32.
91. Curtis V, Cairncross S. Effect of washing hands with soap on diarrhoea risk in the community: a systematic review. Lancet Infectious Diseases 2003;3(5):275-81.
92. Curtis V, Schmidt W, Luby S, Florez R, Touré O, Biran A. Hygiene: new hopes, new horizons. Lancet Infectious Diseases 2011;11(4):312-21.
93. Ehiri JE, Azubuike MC, Ubbaonu CN, Anyanwu EC, Ibe KM, Ogbonna MO. Critical control points of complementary food preparation and handling in eastern Nigeria. Bulletin of World Health Organization 2001;79(5):423-33.
94. Eisenberg JN, Trostle J, Sorensen RJ, Shields KF. Toward a systems approach to enteric pathogen transmission: from individual independence to community interdependence. Annual Review of Public Health 2012;33:239-57.
95. Fewtrell L, Colford JM. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Interventions and Diarrhoea: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis [Report No 34960]. Washington DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 2004.
96. Fewtrell L, Kaufmann RB, Kay D, Enanoria W, Haller L, Colford JM Jr. Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infectious Diseases 2005;5(1):42-52.
97. Gould DJ, Moralejo D, Drey N, Chudleigh JH. Interventions to improve hand hygiene compliance in patient care. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010, Issue 9. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005186.pub3]
98. McMaster University. GRADEpro. McMaster University, 2014.
99. Guevara JP, Berlin JA, Wolf FM. Meta-analytic methods for pooling rates when follow-up duration varies: a case study. BMC Medical Research Methodology 2004;4:17.
100. Gurjeet S, Urhekar AD. Effects of hand wash agents: prevent the laboratory associated infections. International Journal of Medical Research & Health Sciences 2013;2(3):564-8.
101. Higgins JPT, Deeks JJ. Selecting studies and collecting data. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors), Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Version 5.0.0 [updated February 2008]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2008. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
102. Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
103. Hugonnet S, Pittet D. Hand hygiene - beliefs or science. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 2000;6(7):350-6.
104. Huis A, van Achterberg T, de Bruin M, Grol R, Schoonhoven L, Hulscher M. A systematic review of hand hygiene improvement strategies: a behavioural approach. Implementation Science 2012;7:92. [DOI: 10.1186/1748-5908-7-92]
105. Iroegbu CU, Ene-Obong HN, Uwaegute AC, Amazigo UV. Bacteriological quality of weaning food and drinking water given to children of market women in Nigeria: implications for control of diarrhea. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition 2000;18(3):157-62.
106. Lee G, Yori P, Olortegui MP, Pan W, Caulfield L, Gilman RH, et al. Comparative effects of vivax malaria, fever and diarrhoea on child growth. International Journal of Epidemiology 2012;41(2):531-9.
107. Lefebvre C, Manheimer E, Glanville J. Chapter 6: Searching for studies. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org. :.
108. Luby S. The role of hand washing in improving hygiene and health in low-income countries. American Journal of Infection Control 2001;29(4):239-40.
109. Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Feikin DR, Painter J, Billhimer W, Altaf A, et al. Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;366(9481):225-33.
110. Madhu R, van Beinum A. A systematic review of community hand washing interventions leading to changes in hygiene behavior in the developing world. Global Journal on Medicine and Public Health 2012;1(4):49-55.
111. Mannan SR, Rahman MA. Exploring the link between food-hygiene practices and diarrhoea among the children of garments worker mothers in Dhaka. Anwer Khan Modern Medical College Journal 2010;1(2):4-11.
112. Marino DD. Water and food safety in the developing world: global implications for health and nutrition of infants and young children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2007;107(11):1930-4.
113. Martin M. Critical education for participatory research. http://www.socresonline.org.uk/2/2/8.html (accessed 28 September 2007); Vol. 2, issue 2.
114. Maxwell O, Oklo A, Bernard A. Profile of water related diseases in Benue State, Nigeria. American Journal of Human Ecology 2012;1(3):87-94.
115. Murray CJL, Vos T, Lozano R, Naghavi M, Flaxman A, Michaud C, et al. Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 2012;380(9859):2197-223.
116. Nielsen M, Hoogvorst A, Konradsen F, Mudasser M, van der Hoek W. Childhood diarrhea and hygiene: Mothers' perceptions and practices in the Punjab, Pakistan. Working Paper 25. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute. http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Working_Papers/working/WOR25.pdf (accessed 01 September 2014):1-21.
117. Oketcho R, Nyaruhucha CNM, Taybali S, Karimuribo ED. Influence of enteric bacteria and parasite infection and nutritional status on diarrhoea occurrence in six to 60 month old children admitted at Morogoro Regional Hospital of Tanzania. Tanzania Journal of Health Research 2012;14(2):1-14.
118. Pickering AJ, Julian TR, Mamuya S, Boehm AB, Davis J. Bacterial hand contamination among Tanzanian mothers varies temporally and following household activities. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2011;16(2):233-9.
119. Prüss A, Kay D, Fewtrell L, Bartram J. Estimating the burden of disease from water, sanitation, and hygiene at a global level. Environmental Health Perspectives 2002;110(5):537-42.
120. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). 5.3. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2014.
121. Traoré E, Cousens S, Curtis V, Mertens T, Tall F, Traoré A, et al. Childhood defecation behaviour, stool disposal practices, and childhood diarrhoea in Burkina Faso: results from a case-control study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 1994;48(3):270-5.
122. Tumwine JK, Thompson J, Katua-Katua M, Mujwajuzi M, Johnstone N, Porras I. Diarrhoea and effects of different water sources, sanitation and hygiene behaviour in East Africa. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2002;7(9):750-6.
123. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), World Health Organization (WHO). Diarrhoea: why children are still dying and what can be done. Maternal, newborn, child and adolescent health. 2009. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241598415_eng.pdf?ua=1. New York/Geneva, (accessed 18 July 2013):1-68.
124. Walker C, Rudan I, Liu L, Nair H, Theodoratou E, Bhutta ZA, et al. Global burden of childhood pneumonia and diarrhoea. Lancet 2013;381(9875):1405-16.
125. Water and Environmental Health at London and Loughborough (WELL). DFID guidance manual on water supply and sanitation programmes. 1998. http://www.eenet.org.uk/resources/docs/prelims.pdf (accessed 14 June 2014).
126. Whitby M, Pessoa-Silva CL, McLaws ML, Allegranzi B, Sax H, Larson E, et al. Behavioural considerations for hand hygiene practices: the basic building blocks. Journal of Hospital Infection 2007;65(1):1-8.
127. World Health Organization. The Treatment of Diarrhoea: a Manual for Physicians and Other Senior Health Workers [WHO/FCH/CAH/03.7]. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2003.
128. Woldemicael G. Diarrhoeal morbidity among young children in Eritrea: environmental and socioeconomic determinants. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition 2001;19(2):83-90.
129. Yeager BA, Huttly SR, Bartolini R, Rojas M, Lanata CF. Defecation practices of young children in a Peruvian shanty town. Social Science and Medicine 1999;49(4):531-41.
130. Ejemot-Nwadiaro RI, Ehiri JE, Meremikwu MM, Critchley JA. Hand washing for preventing diarrhoea. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004265.pub2]