When does a juvenile become an adult? Implications for law and policy

Temple Law Review

Volumn 88, Issue 4, 2016, Pages 769-788

  Cohen, Alexandra O ^a   Bonnie, Richard J ^b   Taylor Thompson, Kim ^c   Casey, B J ^a,d  

^a WEILL CORNELL MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

^c NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85014989363     PISSN: 08998086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (93)

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6. See, e.g., Jason Chein et al., Peers Increase Adolescent Risk Taking by Enhancing Activity in the Brain's Reward Circuitry, 14 DEVELOPMENTAL SCI. F1, F7 (2011)
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9. see also Kristin Henning, Criminalizing Normal Adolescent Behavior in Communities of Color: The Role of Prosecutors in Juvenile Justice Reform, 98 CORNELL L. REV. 383, 388-91 (2013) (describing the "emerging view of childhood and adolescence as distinct developmental stages").
10. Toward the end of the first phase, critics of the juvenile court began to question its informality, complaining that the rehabilitative goals of the Court were simply a cover for intervention and punishment without procedural safeguards for the child. So, the Supreme Court extended certain, but not all, constitutional protections afforded to an adult accused. See In re Gault, 387 U.S. 1, 56 (1967). But the extension of adultlike constitutional safeguards may have weakened the moral foundations of the juvenile court by supporting the view that courts should treat adolescents as adults. See, e.g., NAT'L RESEARCH COUNCIL, REFORMING JUVENILE JUSTICE: A DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH 38 (Richard J. Bonnie et al. eds., 2013) ("Ironically, the procedural reforms that youth advocates had promoted appeared to support the legitimacy of an adversarial regime that ignored developmental differences between juveniles and adults.")
11. Kim Taylor-Thompson, States of Mind/States of Development, 14 STAN. L. & POL'Y REV. 143, 147 (2003) ("The more that juvenile legal institutions and procedures have begun to mirror their adult counterparts, the more difficult the task has become to distinguish between adolescents and adults in any meaningful way or to justify the continued existence of a separate system of adjudication for youths. Extension of adult-like constitutional status may have contributed to the perception that courts could treat adolescents as adults. That courts should treat adolescents as adults then deceptively seemed only a small step.").
12. John L. DiIulio, Jr., The Coming of the Super-Predators, WKLY. STANDARD, Nov. 27, 1995, at 23.
13. See, e.g., Alfred S. Regnery, Getting Away with Murder: Why the Juvenile Justice System Needs an Overhaul, 34 POL'Y REV. 65, 65 (1985) ("[Current policies used to address juvenile crime] fail to hold offenders accountable and do not deter crime. At best, they are outdated; at worst, they are a total failure, and may even abet the crimes they are supposed to prevent.").
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15. E.g., TASK FORCE ON TRANSFORMING JUVENILE JUSTICE, CHARTING A NEW COURSE: A BLUEPRINT FOR TRANSFORMING JUVENILE JUSTICE IN NEW YORK STATE (2009)
16. NAT'L RESEARCH COUNCIL, supra note 5, at 43; Elizabeth S. Scott, "Children are Different": Constitutional Values and Justice Policy, 11 OHIO ST. J. CRIM. L. 71, 74-75 (2013) ("Lawmakers today are rethinking punitive policies that were adopted in a climate of fear and hostility toward juvenile offenders in the late twentieth century.")
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21. See, e.g., Laurence Steinberg et al., Age Differences in Sensation Seeking and Impulsivity as Indexed by Behavior and Self-Report: Evidence for a Dual Systems Model, 44 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOL. 1764, 1774-76 (2008).
22. HOWARD N. SNYDER & MELISSA SICKMUND, U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, JUVENILE OFFENDERS AND VICTIMS: 2006 NATIONAL REPORT 114 (2006), http://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/nr2006/downloads/chapter4.pdf.
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25. See AARON KUPCHIK, JUDGING JUVENILES: PROSECUTING ADOLESCENTS IN ADULT AND JUVENILE COURTS 2 (2006)
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27. COAL. for JUVENILE JUSTICE, CHILDHOOD ON TRIAL: THE FAILURE OF TRYING AND SENTENCING YOUTH IN ADULT CRIMINAL COURT 2 (2005)
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32. see also Vivian E. Hamilton, Immature Citizens and the State, 2010 B.Y.U. L. REV. 1055, 1129
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40. See id.; Marijuana Overview, NAT'L CONF. ST. LEGISLATURES (Apr. 13, 2016), http://www.ncsl.org/research/civil-and-criminal-justice/marijuana-overview.aspx.
41. U.S. Dep't of Justice, Memorandum from James M. Cole, Deputy Att'y Gen., to All U.S. Att'ys (Aug. 29, 2013), https://www.justice.gov/iso/opa/resources/3052013829132756857467.pdf.
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44. FOOD & DRUG ADMIN., COMPLIANCE WITH REGULATIONS RESTRICTING THE SALE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CIGARETTES AND SMOKELESS TOBACCO TO PROTECT CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS: GUIDANCE FOR INDUSTRY 2 (2013), http://www.fda.gov/downloads/TobaccoProducts/Labeling/RulesRegulationsGuidance/UCM248241.pdf.
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48. See, e.g., B. J. Casey et al., Clinical, Imaging, Lesion, and Genetic Approaches Toward a Model of Cognitive Control, 40 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOBIOLOGY 237, 238 (2002) ("These studies show a nice developmental trend in the ability to ignore irrelevant flankers over the ages of 4 to 12 years that appears to reach adult levels by 12 years as indexed by mean reaction times and accuracy rates.")
49. B. J. Casey & Kristina Caudle, The Teenage Brain: Self Control, 22 CURRENT DIRECTIONS PSYCHOL. SCI. 82, 86 (2013) ("Our findings suggest that adolescents can show remarkable restraint in controlling habitual responses but tend to fail when attempting to control habitual responses to salient positive cues in the environment. Specifically, we showed that adolescents have impulse control that is comparable to or even better than that of some adults in neutral contexts.")
50. James T. Enns & Nameera Akhtar, A Developmental Study of Filtering in Visual Attention, 60 CHILD DEV. 1188 (1989) (examining the differences in filtering between children and adults)
51. James T. Enns & Sharon Cameron, Selective Attention in Young Children: The Relations Between Visual Search, Filtering, and Priming, 44 J. EXPERIMENTAL CHILD PSYCHOL. 38 (1987) (discussing the existing literature of age differences in priming, search/orienting, and filtering)
52. Karen Paulsen & Margaret Johnson, Impulsivity: A Multidimensional Concept with Developmental Aspects, 8 J. ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCHOL. 269, 275 (1980) ("The age-related finding seems consistent with assumptions about neurological/control development. Younger children were not able to inhibit motor movement as well as older children⋯. This is consistent with substantial evidence demonstrating that children generally become less impulsive with age and with the idea that maturational level greatly influences error scores." (citation omitted))
53. K. Richard Ridderinkhof et al., Sources of Interference from Irrelevant Information: A Developmental Study, 65 J. EXPERIMENTAL CHILD PSYCHOL. 315, 336-37 (1997) ("Thus, the main conclusion drawn from the present study is that, rather than in perceptual filtering or in response preparation, the primary source of the developmental decrease in interference from irrelevant information was found in the speed or efficiency of processing in the S-R translation stage, in which the output of perceptual analysis is coupled to the preparation and execution of the motor response.").
54. See, e.g., Sally F. Goldfarb, Who Pays for the "Boomerang Generation"?: A Legal Perspective on Financial Support for Young Adults, 37 HARV. J.L. & GENDER 45, 52 (2014)
55. Vivian E. Hamilton, Democratic Inclusion, Cognitive Development, and the Age of Electoral Majority, 77 BROOK. L. REV. 1447, 1507-10 (2012); Scott, supra note 9, at 85-87.
56. B.J. Casey, Beyond Simple Models of Self-Control to Circuit-Based Accounts of Adolescent Behavior, 66 ANN. REV. PSYCHOL. 295, 304-05 (2015)
57. Leah H. Somerville et al., The Medial Prefrontal Cortex and the Emergence of Self-Conscious Emotion in Adolescence, 24 PSYCHOL. SCI. 1554, 1560 (2013); see also Steinberg, Adolescent Development and Juvenile Justice, supra note 15, at 468-69.
58. See, e.g., Amanda E. Guyer et al., Neural Circuitry Underlying Affective Response to Peer Feedback in Adolescence, 7 SOC. COGNITIVE & AFFECTIVE NEUROSCIENCE 81, 82 (2012) [hereinafter Guyer et al., Neural Circuitry]
59. Amanda E. Guyer et al., Probing the Neural Correlates of Anticipated Peer Evaluation in Adolescence, 80 CHILD DEV. 1000, 1000 (2009) [hereinafter Guyer et al., Probing the Neural Correlates]
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61. Chein et al., supra note 3, at F7-8; Margo Gardner & Laurence Steinberg, Peer Influence on Risk Taking, Risk Preference, and Risky Decision Making in Adolescence and Adulthood: An Experimental Study, 41 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOL. 625, 625-26 (2005)
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63. Laurence Steinberg, The Influence of Neuroscience on US Supreme Court Decisions About Adolescents' Criminal Culpability, 14 NATURE REVS. NEUROSCIENCE 513, 516 (2013)
64. see also Philip R. Costanzo & Marvin E. Shaw, Conformity as a Function of Age Level, 37 CHILD DEV. 967, 972-74 (1966) (discussing that the impact of peers on behavior varies with age); Steinberg & Monahan, supra note 16, at 1531 ("The increased importance of peers leads adolescents to want to alter their behavior in order to fit in; because they care more about what their friends think of them, they are more likely to go along with the crowd to avoid being rejected.").
65. See Geier et al., supra note 1, at 1615, 1625; Michael G. Hardin et al., Inhibitory Control in Anxious and Healthy Adolescents Is Modulated by Incentive and Incidental Affective Stimuli, 50 J. CHILD PSYCHOL. & PSYCHIATRY 1550, 1553-55 (2009)
66. Theresa Teslovich et al., Adolescents Let Sufficient Evidence Accumulate Before Making a Decision When Large Incentives Are at Stake, 17 DEVELOPMENTAL SCI. 59, 61, 66-67 (2014).
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68. E.g., Julia E. Cohen-Gilbert & Kathleen M. Thomas, Inhibitory Control During Emotional Distraction Across Adolescence and Early Adulthood, 84 CHILD DEV. 1954, 1961-63 (2013) ("Results of this study supported the prediction that younger adolescents, when required to exert inhibitory control over a potentiated response, are more readily disrupted by emotional information than are older adolescents and adults.")
69. Jillian Grose-Fifer et al., Attentional Capture by Emotional Faces in Adolescence, 9 ADVANCES COGNITIVE PSYCHOL. 81, 81-83, 86 (2013) ("Our findings suggest that the ability to self-regulate in adolescents, as evidenced by the ability to suppress irrelevant information on a flanker task, is more difficult when stimuli are affective in nature.").
70. E.g., Casey, supra note 50, at 298-301; B.J. Casey a, The Adolescent Brain, 28 DEVELOPMENTAL REV. 62, 73 (2008) [hereinafter Casey et al., The Adolescent Brain].
71. E.g., Nitin Gogtay et al., Dynamic Mapping of Human Cortical Development During Childhood Through Early Adulthood, 101 PROCEEDINGS NAT'L ACAD. SCI. U.S.A. 8174, 8174 (2004)
72. Kathryn L. Mills et al., The Developmental Mismatch in Structural Brain Maturation During Adolescence, 36 DEVELOPMENTAL NEUROSCIENCE 147, 155-58 (2014)
73. Zdravko Petanjek et al., Extraordinary Neoteny of Synaptic Spines in the Human Prefrontal Cortex, 108 PROCEEDINGS NAT'L ACAD. SCI. U.S.A. 13281, 13284 (2011)
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75. Elizabeth R. Sowell et al., Longitudinal Mapping of Cortical Thickness and Brain Growth in Normal Children, 24 J. NEUROSCIENCE 8223, 8228-30 (2004).
76. See Jean-Pierre Bourgeois et al., Synaptogenesis in the Prefrontal Cortex of Rhesus Monkeys, 4 CEREBRAL CORTEX 78, 78-79 (1994)
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78. See Bourgeois et al., supra note 64, at 90; Harry T. Chugani et al., Positron Emission Tomography Study of Human Brain Functional Development, 22 ANNALS NEUROLOGY 487, 494-96 (1987)
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80. Casey, supra note 50, at 298-99; Monique Ernst et al., Triadic Model of the Neurobiology of Motivated Behavior in Adolescence, 36 PSYCHOL. MED. 299, 300-01 (2006)
81. Laurence Steinberg, A Dual Systems Model of Adolescent Risk-Taking, 52 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOBIOLOGY 216, 216 (2010).
82. Casey et al., The Adolescent Brain, supra note 62, at 66-68; B.J. Casey et al., Beyond Simple Models of Adolescence to an Integrated Circuit-Based Account: A Commentary, 17 DEVELOPMENTAL COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE 128, 128-30 (2016).
83. See, e.g., Abigail A. Baird et al., Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Facial Affect Recognition in Children and Adolescents, 38 J. ACAD. CHILD & ADOLESCENT PSYCHIATRY 195, 197-99 (1999)
84. Casey, supra note 50, at 305-07; Guyer et al., Probing the Neural Correlates, supra note 51, at 1011; Hare et al., supra note 65, at 933-34; Christopher S. Monk et al., Adolescent Immaturity in Attention-Related Brain Engagement to Emotional Facial Expressions, 20 NEUROIMAGE 420, 427-28 (2003).
85. See, e.g., Emily Barkley-Levenson & Adriana Galván, Neural Representation of Expected Value in the Adolescent Brain, 111 PROCEEDINGS NAT'L ACAD. SCI. U.S.A. 1646, 1648-50 (2014)
86. Galván et al., supra note 1, at 6889-91; Geier et al., supra note 1, at 1621-26; Somerville et al., supra note 3, at 2129-31; Wouter van den Bos et al., What Motivates Repayment? Neural Correlates of Reciprocity in the Trust Game, 4 SOC. COGNITIVE & AFFECTIVE NEUROSCIENCE 294, 300-03 (2009).
87. See, e.g., Chein et al., supra note 3, at F1, F4-7 ("Results suggest that the presence of peers increases adolescent risk taking by heightening sensitivity to the potential reward value of risky decisions."); Cohen-Gilbert & Thomas, supra note 60, at 217-20 ("Consistent with previous reports, adolescents in the present study demonstrated worse inhibitory control than emerging adults and adults, reflected by higher error rates on No-Go trials⋯. [M]ultiple developmental changes in cognitive processing contribute to reductions in impulsivity between adolescence and adulthood."); Karol Silva et al., Peers Increase Late Adolescents' Exploratory Behavior and Sensitivity to Positive and Negative Feedback, J. RES. ADOLESCENCE 1, 5-7, 9 (2015) ("Although late adolescents may engage in relatively more risky behavior when they are with their peers, they also may learn more about the environment in group settings than when they are alone. In this regard, our findings suggest that spending time with peers during adolescence may be a double-edged sword, increasing the odds that adolescents will behave recklessly, but also that they will learn from the consequences of their actions.").
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89. Alexandra O. Cohen et al., When Is an Adolescent an Adult? Assessing Cognitive Control in Emotional and Non-Emotional Contexts, 27 PSYCHOL. SCI. 549, 549 (2016).
90. See, e.g., Jason T. Buhle et al., Cognitive Reappraisal of Emotion: A Meta-Analysis of Human Neuroimaging Studies, 24 CEREBRAL CORTEX 2981, 2984-87 (2014) ("Indeed, whether emotion generation and regulation necessarily rely upon distinct neural mechanisms remains an open question, given that partially overlapping prefrontal regions have been shown in prior work to support emotion generation, perception, experience, and regulation.")
91. Jennifer A. Silvers et al., Curbing Craving: Behavioral and Brain Evidence that Children Regulate Craving When Instructed to Do So but Have Higher Baseline Craving than Adults, 25 PSYCHOL. SCI. 1932, 1936 (2014) ("Older age predicted increased recruitment of right lateral prefrontal and bilateral posterior parietal cortices and decreased recruitment of subcortical structures implicated in reward and emotional processing, such as the VS and amygdala, during presentation of food pictures relative to fixation. Similar regions of interest (ROIs) were identified by linear and quadratic models of age." (citations omitted))
92. Justin L. Vincent et al., Evidence for a Frontoparietal Control System Revealed by Intrinsic Functional Connectivity, 100 J. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY 3328 (2008) (discussing the frontoparietal control system).
93. Alexandra O. Cohen & B.J. Casey, Rewiring Juvenile Justice: The Intersection of Developmental Neuroscience and Legal Policy, 18 TRENDS COGNITIVE SCI. 63, 63 (2014); Steinberg & Monahan, supra note 16, at 1541.