Metal-organic frameworks for membrane-based separations

Nature Reviews Materials

Volumn 1, Issue 12, 2016, Pages

  Denny, Michael S ^a   Moreton, Jessica C ^a   Benz, Lauren ^b   Cohen, Seth M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SAN DIEGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85014579232     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20588437     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/natrevmats.2016.78     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. Farha, O. K. et al. De novo synthesis of a metal-organic framework material featuring ultrahigh surface area and gas storage capacities. Nat. Chem. 2, 944-948 (2010).
2. Hoskins, B. F. & Robson, R. Design and construction of a new class of scaffolding-like materials comprising infinite polymeric frameworks of 3D-linked molecular rods. A reappraisal of the Zn(CN)2 and Cd(CN)2 structures and the synthesis and structure of the diamond-related frameworks [N(CH3)4][CuIZnII(CN)4] and CuI[4,4,4,4-tetracyanotetraphenylmethane] BF4xC6H5NO2. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 112, 1546-1554 (1990).
3. Yaghi, O. M. & Li, H. Hydrothermal synthesis of a metal-organic framework containing large rectangular channels. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117, 10401-10402 (1995).
4. Liu, J. et al. Applications of metal-organic frameworks in heterogeneous supramolecular catalysis. Chem. Soc. Rev. 43, 6011-6061 (2014).
5. Furukawa, H., Cordova, K. E., O'Keeffe, M. & Yaghi, O. M. The chemistry and applications of metal-organic frameworks. Science 341, 1230444 (2013).
6. Horcajada, P. et al. Metal-organic frameworks in biomedicine. Chem. Rev. 112, 1232-1268 (2012).
7. Jacoby, M. Heading to market with MOFs. Chem. Eng. News 86, 13-16 (2008).
8. Van de Voorde, B., Bueken, B., Denayer, J. & De Vos, D. Adsorptive separation on metal-organic frameworks in the liquid phase. Chem. Soc. Rev. 43, 5766-5788 (2014).
9. Liu, J., Thallapally, P. K., McGrail, B. P., Brown, D. R. & Liu, J. Progress in adsorption-based CO2 capture by metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Soc. Rev. 41, 2308-2322 (2012).
10. Sumida, K. et al. Carbon dioxide capture in metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Rev. 112, 724-781 (2012).
11. Baig, F. U. in Advanced Membrane Technology and Applications (eds Li, N. N., Fane, A. G., Winston Ho, W. S. & Matsuura, T.) 469-488 (John Wiley & Sons, 2008).
12. Kubota, N., Hashimoto, T. & Mori, Y. in Advanced Membrane Technology and Applications (eds Li, N. N., Fane, A. G., Winston Ho, W. S. & Matsuura, T.) 101-129 (John Wiley & Sons, 2008).
13. Rangnekar, N., Mittal, N., Elyassi, B., Caro, J. & Tsapatsis, M. Zeolite membranes-a review and comparison with MOFs. Chem. Soc. Rev. 44, 7128-7154 (2015).
14. Burtch, N. C., Jasuja, H. & Walton, K. S. Water stability and adsorption in metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Rev. 114, 10575-10612 (2014).
15. Herm, Z. R. et al. Separation of hexane isomers in a metal-organic framework with triangular channels. Science 340, 960-964 (2013).
16. Farha, O. K. et al. Metal-organic framework materials with ultrahigh surface areas: is the sky the limit J. Am. Chem. Soc. 134, 15016-15021 (2012).
17. Cohen, S. M. Postsynthetic methods for the functionalization of metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Rev. 112, 970-1000 (2012).
18. Shah, M., McCarthy, M. C., Sachdeva, S., Lee, A. K. & Jeong, H.-K. Current status of metal-organic framework membranes for gas separations: promises and challenges. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51, 2179-2199 (2012).
19. Robeson, L. M. Correlation of separation factor versus permeability for polymeric membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 62, 165-185 (1991).
20. Robeson, L. M. The upper bound revisited. J. Membr. Sci. 320, 390-400 (2008).
21. Robeson, L. M., Liu, Q., Freeman, B. D. & Paul, D. R. Comparison of transport properties of rubbery and glassy polymers and the relevance to the upper bound relationship. J. Membr. Sci. 476, 421-431 (2015).
22. Kim, S. & Lee, Y. M. Rigid and microporous polymers for gas separation membranes. Prog. Polym. Sci. 43, 1-32 (2015).
23. Chen, X. Y., Vinh-Thang, H., Ramirez, A. A., Rodrigue, D. & Kaliaguine, S. Membrane gas separation technologies for biogas upgrading. RSC Adv. 5, 24399-24448 (2015).
24. Sanders, D. F. et al. Energy-efficient polymeric gas separation membranes for a sustainable future: a review. Polymer 54, 4729-4761 (2013).
25. McKeown, N. B. & Budd, P. M. Polymers of intrinsic microporosity (PIMs): organic materials for membrane separations, heterogeneous catalysis and hydrogen storage. Chem. Soc. Rev. 35, 675-683 (2006).
26. Swaidan, R., Ghanem, B. & Pinnau, I. Fine-tuned intrinsically ultramicroporous polymers redefine the permeability/selectivity upper bounds of membrane-based air and hydrogen separations. ACS Macro Lett. 4, 947-951 (2015).
27. Freeman, B. D. Basis of permeability/selectivity tradeoff relations in polymeric gas separation membranes. Macromolecules 32, 375-380 (1999).
28. Swaidan, R., Ghanem, B., Litwiller, E. & Pinnau, I. Physical aging, plasticization and their effects on gas permeation in "rigid" polymers of intrinsic microporosity. Macromolecules 48, 6553-6561 (2015).
29. Li, W., Zhang, Y., Li, Q. & Zhang, G. Metal-organic framework composite membranes: synthesis and separation applications. Chem. Eng. Sci. 135, 232-257 (2015).
30. Zacher, D., Shekhah, O., Woll, C. & Fischer, R. A. Thin films of metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Soc. Rev. 38, 1418-1429 (2009).
31. Stock, N. & Biswas, S. Synthesis of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs): routes to various MOF topologies, morphologies, and composites. Chem. Rev. 112, 933-969 (2012).
32. Bétard, A. & Fischer, R. A. Metal-organic framework thin films: from fundamentals to applications. Chem. Rev. 112, 1055-1083 (2012).
33. Qiu, S. L., Xue, M. & Zhu, G. S. Metal-organic framework membranes: from synthesis to separation application. Chem. Soc. Rev. 43, 6116-6140 (2014).
34. Venna, S. R. & Carreon, M. A. Metal organic framework membranes for carbon dioxide separation. Chem. Eng. Sci. 124, 3-19 (2015).
35. Erucar, I., Yilmaz, G. & Keskin, S. Recent advances in metal-organic framework-based mixed matrix membranes. Chem. Asian J. 8, 1692-1704 (2013).
36. Zornoza, B., Tellez, C., Coronas, J., Gascon, J. & Kapteijn, F. Metal organic framework based mixed matrix membranes: an increasingly important field of research with a large application potential. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 166, 67-78 (2013).
37. Seoane, B. et al. Metal-organic framework based mixed matrix membranes: a solution for highly efficient CO2 capture Chem. Soc. Rev. 44, 2421-2454 (2015).
38. Shekhah, O., Liu, J., Fischer, R. A. & Woll, C. MOF thin films: existing and future applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 40, 1081-1106 (2011).
39. Aguado, S. & Farrusseng, D. in Metal-Organic Frameworks: Applications from Catalysis to Gas Storage (ed Farrusseng, D.) 121-149 (Wiley-VCH, 2011).
40. Yeo, Z. Y., Chai, S.-P., Zhu, P. W. & Mohamed, A. R. An overview: synthesis of thin films/membranes of metal organic frameworks and its gas separation performances. RSC Adv. 4, 54322-54334 (2014).
41. Adatoz, E., Avci, A. K. & Keskin, S. Opportunities and challenges of MOF-based membranes in gas separations. Sep. Purif. Technol. 152, 207-237 (2015).
42. Liu, B. & Fischer, R. A. Liquid-phase epitaxy of metal organic framework thin films. Sci. China Chem. 54, 1851-1866 (2011).
43. Zacher, D., Schmid, R., Woll, C. & Fischer, R. A. Surface chemistry of metal-organic frameworks at the liquid-solid interface. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 50, 176-199 (2011).
44. Cui, X. et al. Pore chemistry and size control in hybrid porous materials for acetylene capture from ethylene. Science 353, 141-144 (2016).
45. Cadiau, A., Adil, K., Bhatt, P. M., Belmabkhout, Y. & Eddaoudi, M. A metal-organic framework-based splitter for separating propylene from propane. Science 353, 137-140 (2016).
46. Li, B., Wen, H.-M., Zhou, W. & Chen, B. Porous metal-organic frameworks for gas storage and separation: what, how, and why J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 5, 3468-3479 (2014).
47. Rui, Z., James, J. B., Kasik, A. & Lin, Y. S. Novel metal-organic framework membrane process for high purity CO2 production. AIChE J. 62, 3836-3841 (2016).
48. Venna, S. R. et al. Fabrication of MMMs with improved gas separation properties using externally-functionalized MOF particles. J. Mater. Chem. A 3, 5014-5022 (2015).
49. Wang, N., Mundstock, A., Liu, Y., Huang, A. & Caro, J. Amine-modified Mg-MOF-74/CPO-27-Mg membrane with enhanced H2/CO2 separation. Chem. Eng. Sci. 124, 27-36 (2015).
50. Carta, M. et al. An efficient polymer molecular sieve for membrane gas separations. Science 339, 303-307 (2013).
51. Feng, C., Khulbe, K. C., Matsuura, T., Farnood, R. & Ismail, A. F. Recent progress in zeolite/zeotype membranes. J. Membr. Sci. Res. 1, 49-72 (2015).
52. Ordoñez, M. J. C., Balkus, K. J. Jr, Ferraris, J. P. & Musselman, I. H. Molecular sieving realized with ZIF-8/ Matrimidâ mixed-matrix membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 361, 28-37 (2010).
53. Zhu, Y. et al. Synthesis and seawater desalination of molecular sieving zeolitic imidazolate framework membranes. Desalination 385, 75-82 (2016).
54. Sorribas, S., Gorgojo, P., Téllez, C., Coronas, J. & Livingston, A. G. High flux thin film nanocomposite membranes based on metal-organic frameworks for organic solvent nanofiltration. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135, 15201-15208 (2013).
55. Khayet, M. in Advanced Membrane Technology and Applications (eds Li, N. N., Fane, A. G., Winston Ho, W. S. & Matsuura, T.) 297-369 (John Wiley & Sons, 2008).
56. Lipnizki, F., Hausmanns, S., Ten, P.-K., Field, R. W. & Laufenberg, G. Organophilic pervaporation: prospects and performance. Chem. Eng. J. 73, 113-129 (1999).
57. Sorribas, S. et al. Pervaporation and membrane reactor performance of polyimide based mixed matrix membranes containing MOF HKUST-1. Chem. Eng. Sci. 124, 37-44 (2015).
58. Jonquières, A. et al. Industrial state-of-the-art of pervaporation and vapour permeation in the western countries. J. Membr. Sci. 206, 87-117 (2002).
59. Morigami, Y., Kondo, M., Abe, J., Kita, H. & Okamoto, K. The first large-scale pervaporation plant using tubular-type module with zeolite NaA membrane. Sep. Purif. Technol. 25, 251-260 (2001).
60. Atci, E. & Keskin, S. Understanding the potential of zeolite imidazolate framework membranes in gas separations using atomically detailed calculations. J. Phys. Chem. C 116, 15525-15537 (2012).
61. Gupta, K. M., Qiao, Z., Zhang, K. & Jiang, J. Seawater pervaporation through zeolitic imidazolate framework membranes: atomistic simulation study. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8, 13392-13399 (2016).
62. Adatoz, E. & Keskin, S. Application of MD simulations to predict membrane properties of MOFs. J. Nanomater. 2015, 136867 (2015).
63. Liu, X., Demir, N. K., Wu, Z. & Li, K. Highly water-stable zirconium metal-organic framework UiO-66 membranes supported on alumina hollow fibers for desalination. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137, 6999-7002 (2015).
64. Valenzano, L. et al. Disclosing the complex structure of UiO-66 metal organic framework: a synergic combination of experiment and theory. Chem. Mater. 23, 1700-1718 (2011).
65. Vandichel, M. et al. Active site engineering in UiO-66 type metal-organic frameworks by intentional creation of defects: a theoretical rationalization. CrystEngComm 17, 395-406 (2015).
66. Ghosh, P., Colon, Y. J. & Snurr, R. Q. Water adsorption in UiO-66: the importance of defects. Chem. Commun. 50, 11329-11331 (2014).
67. Trickett, C. A. et al. Definitive molecular level characterization of defects in UiO-66 crystals. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 127, 11314-11319 (2015).
68. Schneemann, A. et al. Flexible metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Soc. Rev. 43, 6062-6096 (2014).
69. Kolokolov, D. I., Stepanov, A. G. & Jobic, H. Mobility of the 2-methylimidazolate linkers in ZIF-8 probed by 2H NMR: saloon doors for the guests. J. Phys. Chem. C 119, 27512-27520 (2015).
70. Wu, Y.-N. et al. Electrospun fibrous mats as skeletons to produce free-standing MOF membranes. J. Mater. Chem. 22, 16971-16978 (2012).
71. Kasik, A., Dong, X. & Lin, Y. S. Synthesis and stability of zeolitic imidazolate framework-68 membranes. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 204, 99-105 (2015).
72. Hermes, S., Zacher, D., Baunemann, A., Wöll, C. & Fischer, R. A. Selective growth and MOCVD loading of small single crystals of MOF-5 at alumina and silica surfaces modified with organic self-assembled monolayers. Chem. Mater. 19, 2168-2173 (2007).
73. Zacher, D., Baunemann, A., Hermes, S. & Fischer, R. A. Deposition of microcrystalline [Cu3(btc)2] and [Zn2(bdc)2(dabco)] at alumina and silica surfaces modified with patterned self assembled organic monolayers: evidence of surface selective and oriented growth. J. Mater. Chem. 17, 2785-2792 (2007).
74. Shekhah, O. et al. The liquid phase epitaxy approach for the successful construction of ultra-thin and defect-free ZIF-8 membranes: pure and mixed gas transport study. Chem. Commun. 50, 2089-2092 (2014).
75. Ameloot, R. et al. Interfacial synthesis of hollow metal-organic framework capsules demonstrating selective permeability. Nat. Chem. 3, 382-387 (2011).
76. Yao, J. et al. Contra-diffusion synthesis of ZIF-8 films on a polymer substrate. Chem. Commun. 47, 2559-2561 (2011).
77. Campbell, J., Davies, R. P., Braddock, D. C. & Livingston, A. G. Improving the permeance of hybrid polymer/metal-organic framework (MOF) membranes for organic solvent nanofiltration (OSN)-development of MOF thin films via interfacial synthesis. J. Mater. Chem. A 3, 9668-9674 (2015).
78. Huang, K. et al. A ZIF-71 hollow fiber membrane fabricated by contra-diffusion. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7, 16157-16160 (2015).
79. Brown, A. J. et al. Interfacial microfluidic processing of metal-organic framework hollow fiber membranes. Science 345, 72-75 (2014).
80. Denny, M. S. & Cohen, S. M. In situ modification of metal-organic frameworks in mixed-matrix membranes. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 54, 9029-9032 (2015).
81. Mondloch, J. E. et al. Vapor-phase metalation by atomic layer deposition in a metal-organic framework. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135, 10294-10297 (2013).
82. Sotto, A., Orcajo, G., Arsuaga, J. M., Calleja, G. & Landaburu-Aguirre, J. Preparation and characterization of MOF-PES ultrafiltration membranes. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 132, 41633 (2015).
83. Basu, S. et al. Solvent resistant nanofiltration (SRNF) membranes based on metal-organic frameworks. J. Membr. Sci. 344, 190-198 (2009).
84. Amirilargani, M. & Sadatnia, B. Poly(vinyl alcohol)/ zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIF-8) mixed matrix membranes for pervaporation dehydration of isopropanol. J. Membr. Sci. 469, 1-10 (2014).
85. Duan, J. et al. High-performance polyamide thin-film-nanocomposite reverse osmosis membranes containing hydrophobic zeolitic imidazolate framework-8. J. Membr. Sci. 476, 303-310 (2015).
86. DeCoste, J. B., Denny, M. S., Peterson, G. W., Mahle, J. J. & Cohen, S. M. Enhanced aging properties of HKUST-1 in hydrophobic mixed-matrix membranes for ammonia adsorption. Chem. Sci. 7, 2711-2716, (2016).
87. Bachman, J. E., Smith, Z. P., Li, T., Xu, T. & Long, J. R. Enhanced ethylene separation and plasticization resistance in polymer membranes incorporating metal-organic framework nanocrystals. Nat. Mater. 15, 845-849 (2016).
88. Song, Q. L. et al. Zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF-8) based polymer nanocomposite membranes for gas separation. Energy Environ. Sci. 5, 8359-8369 (2012).
89. Zhang, R. et al. Coordination-driven in situ self-assembly strategy for the preparation of metal-organic framework hybrid membranes. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 53, 9775-9779 (2014).
90. Wang, L. et al. The influence of dispersed phases on polyamide/ZIF-8 nanofiltration membranes for dye removal from water. RSC Adv. 5, 50942-50954 (2015).
91. Zhang, Y. et al. Photoinduced postsynthetic polymerization of a metal-organic framework toward a flexible stand-alone membrane. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 54, 4259-4263 (2015).
92. Lin, L. et al. Membrane adsorber with metal organic frameworks for sulphur removal. RSC Adv. 3, 9889-9896 (2013).
93. Wee, L. H. et al. Submicrometer-sized ZIF-71 filled organophilic membranes for improved bioethanol recovery: mechanistic insights by Monte Carlo simulation and FTIR spectroscopy. Adv. Funct. Mater. 25, 516-525 (2015).
94. Yan, H. et al. Sonication-enhanced in situ assembly of organic/inorganic hybrid membranes: evolution of nanoparticle distribution and pervaporation performance. J. Membr. Sci. 481, 94-105 (2015).
95. Liu, X.-L. et al. An organophilic pervaporation membrane derived from metal-organic framework nanoparticles for efficient recovery of bio-alcohols. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 50, 10636-10639 (2011).
96. Fan, H. et al. Simultaneous spray self-assembly of highly loaded ZIF-8-PDMS nanohybrid membranes exhibiting exceptionally high biobutanol-permselective pervaporation. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 53, 5578-5582 (2014).
97. Shi, G. M., Yang, T. & Chung, T. S. Polybenzimidazole (PBI)/zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIF-8) mixed matrix membranes for pervaporation dehydration of alcohols. J. Membr. Sci. 415-416, 577-586 (2012).
98. Ying, Y. et al. Recovery of acetone from aqueous solution by ZIF-7/PDMS mixed matrix membranes. RSC Adv. 5, 28394-28400 (2015).
99. Liu, J. et al. In situ growth of continuous thin metal-organic framework film for capacitive humidity sensing. J. Mater. Chem. 21, 3775-3778 (2011).
100. Vankelecom, I. F. J. et al. Silylation to improve incorporation of zeolites in polyimide films. J. Phys. Chem. 100, 3753-3758 (1996).
101. Marti, A., Tran, D. & Balkus, K. Jr. Fabrication of a substituted imidazolate material 1 (SIM-1) membrane using post synthetic modification (PSM) for pervaporation of water/ethanol mixtures. J. Porous Mater. 22, 1275-1284 (2015).
102. Yao, B.-J., Jiang, W.-L., Dong, Y., Liu, Z.-X. & Dong, Y.-B. Post-synthetic polymerization of UiO-66-NH2 nanoparticles and polyurethane oligomer toward stand-alone membranes for dye removal and separation. Chem. Eur. J. 22, 10565-10571 (2016).
103. McGuire, C. V. & Forgan, R. S. The surface chemistry of metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Commun. 51, 5199-5217 (2015).
104. Patterson, J. P. et al. Observing the growth of metal-organic frameworks by in situ liquid cell transmission electron microscopy. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137, 7322-7328 (2015).
105. Ma, M. Y. et al. Use of confocal fluorescence microscopy to compare different methods of modifying metal-organic framework (MOF) crystals with dyes. CrystEngComm 13, 2828-2832 (2011).
106. Gadzikwa, T. et al. Selective bifunctional modification of a non-catenated metal-organic framework material via "click" chemistry. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131, 13613-13615 (2009).
107. Gadzikwa, T. et al. Covalent surface modification of a metal-organic framework: selective surface engineering via CuI-catalyzed Huisgen cycloaddition. Chem. Commun. 2008, 5493-5495 (2008).
108. Kondo, M., Furukawa, S., Hirai, K. & Kitagawa, S. Coordinatively immobilized monolayers on porous coordination polymer crystals. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49, 5327-5330 (2010).
109. Yanai, N. & Granick, S. Directional self-assembly of a colloidal metal-organic framework. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 51, 5638-5641 (2012).
110. Yanai, N., Sindoro, M., Yan, J. & Granick, S. Electric field-induced assembly of monodisperse polyhedral metal-organic framework crystals. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135, 34-37 (2013).
111. Jung, S. et al. Bio-functionalization of metal-organic frameworks by covalent protein conjugation. Chem. Commun. 47, 2904-2906 (2011).
112. Morris, W., Briley, W. E., Auyeung, E., Cabezas, M. D. & Mirkin, C. A. Nucleic acid-metal organic framework (MOF) nanoparticle conjugates. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136, 7261-7264 (2014).
113. Silverstein, R. M. & Webster, F. X. Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds, 6th Edition (John Wiley & Sons, 1998).
114. Liu, X. L. et al. Improvement of hydrothermal stability of zeolitic imidazolate frameworks. Chem. Commun. 49, 9140-9142 (2013).
115. Chi, W. S. et al. Mixed matrix membranes consisting of SEBS block copolymers and size-controlled ZIF-8 nanoparticles for CO2 capture. J. Membr. Sci. 495, 479-488 (2015).
116. Huth, F. et al. Nano-FTIR absorption spectroscopy of molecular fingerprints at 20 nm spatial resolution. Nano Lett. 12, 3973-3978 (2012).
117. Bordiga, S. et al. Adsorption properties of HKUST-1 toward hydrogen and other small molecules monitored by IR. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 9, 2676-2685 (2007).
118. Tian, F. Y. et al. Surface and stability characterization of a nanoporous ZIF-8 thin film. J. Phys. Chem. C 118, 14449-14456 (2014).
119. Chizallet, C. & Bats, N. External surface of zeolite imidazolate fameworks viewed ab initio: multifunctionality at the organic-inorganic interface. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 1, 349-353 (2010).
120. Lu, G. & Hupp, J. T. Metal-organic frameworks as sensors: a ZIF-8 based Fabry-Perot device as a selective sensor for chemical vapors and gases. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132, 7832-7833 (2010).
121. Heinke, L., Gu, Z. G. & Woll, C. The surface barrier phenomenon at the loading of metal-organic frameworks. Nat. Commun. 5, 4562 (2014).
122. Liu, B., Tu, M. & Fischer, R. A. Metal-organic framework thin films: crystallite orientation dependent adsorption. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 52, 3402-3405 (2013).
123. Liu, B. et al. Chemistry of SURMOFs: layer-selective installation of functional groups and post-synthetic covalent modification probed by fluorescence microscopy. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 1734-1737 (2011).
124. Tian, F. Y. et al. In situ Measurement of CO2 and H2O adsorption by ZIF-8 films. J. Phys. Chem. C 119, 15248-15253 (2015).
125. Cussler, E. L. Membranes containing selective flakes. J. Membr. Sci. 52, 275-288 (1990).
126. Jeong, B. H. et al. Interfacial polymerization of thin film nanocomposites: a new concept for reverse osmosis membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 294, 1-7 (2007).
127. Peterson, R. J. Composite reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 83, 81-150 (1993).
128. Hudiono, Y. C., Carlisle, T. K., LaFrate, A. L., Gin, D. L. & Noble, R. D. Novel mixed matrix membranes based on polymerizable room-temperature ionic liquids and SAPO-34 particles to improve CO2 separation. J. Membr. Sci. 370, 141-148 (2011).
129. Hod, I. et al. Directed growth of electroactive metal-organic framework thin films using electrophoretic deposition. Adv. Mater. 26, 6295-6300 (2014).
130. Zhang, Z., Nguyen, H. T. H., Miller, S. A. & Cohen, S. M. polyMOFs: a class of interconvertible polymer-metal-organic-framework hybrid materials. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 54, 6152-6157 (2015).
131. Zhang, Z. et al. Polymer-metal-organic frameworks (polyMOFs) as water tolerant materials for selective carbon dioxide separations. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138, 920-925 (2016).
132. Zhukhovitskiy, A. V. et al. Highly branched and loop-rich gels via formation of metal-organic cages linked by polymers. Nat. Chem. 8, 33-41 (2016).
133. Wilmer, C. E. et al. Large-scale screening of hypothetical metal-organic frameworks. Nat. Chem. 4, 83-89 (2012).
134. Shoaee, M., Anderson, M. W. & Attfield, M. P. Crystal growth of the nanoporous metal-organic framework HKUST-1 revealed by in situ atomic force microscopy. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 47, 8525-8528 (2008).
135. Moh, P. Y., Cubillas, P., Anderson, M. W. & Attfield, M. P. Revelation of the molecular assembly of the nanoporous metal organic framework ZIF-8. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 13304-13307 (2011).
136. Cubillas, P., Anderson, M. W. & Attfield, M. P. Materials discovery and crystal growth of zeolite A type zeolitic-imidazolate frameworks revealed by atomic force microscopy. Chem. Eur. J. 19, 8236-8243 (2013).
137. Cubillas, P., Anderson, M. W. & Attfield, M. P. Crystal growth mechanisms and morphological control of the prototypical metal-organic framework MOF-5 revealed by atomic force microscopy. Chem. Eur. J. 18, 15406-15415 (2012).
138. John, N. S. et al. Single layer growth of sub-micron metal-organic framework crystals observed by in situ atomic force microscopy. Chem. Commun. 6294-6296 (2009).
139. Hermes, S., Schroder, F., Chelmowski, R., Woll, C. & Fischer, R. A. Selective nucleation and growth of metal-organic open framework thin films on patterned COOH/ CF3-terminated self-assembled monolayers on Au(111). J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127, 13744-13745 (2005).
140. Cravillon, J. et al. Fast nucleation and growth of ZIF-8 nanocrystals monitored by time-resolved in situ small-angle and wide-angle X-ray scattering. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 50, 8067-8071 (2011).