Evidence for Reverse Causality in the Association between Blood Pressure and Cardiovascular Risk in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease

Hypertension

Volumn 69, Issue 2, 2017, Pages 314-322

  Herrington, William ^a   Staplin, Natalie ^a   Judge, Parminder K ^a   Mafham, Marion ^a   Emberson, Jonathan ^a   Haynes, Richard ^a   Wheeler, David C ^b,c   Walker, Robert ^d   Tomson, Charlie ^e   Agodoa, Larry ^f   Wiecek, Andrzej ^g   Lewington, Sarah ^a   Reith, Christina A ^a   Landray, Martin J ^a   Baigent, Colin ^a,h  

^a CLINICAL TRIAL SERVICE UNIT   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

^e NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE HOSPITALS NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

^f NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF DIABETES AND DIGESTIVE AND KIDNEY DISEASES   (United States)

^g MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF SILESIA   (Poland)

^h Richard Doll Bldg   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

blood pressure; chronic kidney disease; epidemiology; troponin; vascular disease

Indexed keywords

EZETIMIBE PLUS SIMVASTATIN; PLACEBO; TROPONIN I; EZETIMIBE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC AGENT; SIMVASTATIN;

ADULT; ARTICLE; BLOOD PRESSURE; BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CAUSALITY; CHRONIC KIDNEY FAILURE; DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; FEMALE; FOLLOW UP; HUMAN; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; MORTALITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; TREND STUDY; AGED; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMBINATION DRUG THERAPY; COMPLICATION; CONTROLLED STUDY; KIDNEY; MULTICENTER STUDY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; PROGNOSIS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL; RISK FACTOR;

AGED; ANTICHOLESTEREMIC AGENTS; BLOOD PRESSURE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; EZETIMIBE; FEMALE; FOLLOW-UP STUDIES; HUMANS; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL-COA REDUCTASE INHIBITORS; KIDNEY; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; PROGNOSIS; RENAL INSUFFICIENCY, CHRONIC; RISK FACTORS; SIMVASTATIN;

EID: 85007427941     PISSN: 0194911X     EISSN: 15244563     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.116.08386     Document Type: Article

References (43)

1. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R, Prospective Studies Collaboration Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: A meta-Analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 2002 360 1903 1913. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11911-8.
2. Collins R, Peto R, MacMahon S, Hebert P, Fiebach NH, Eberlein KA, Godwin J, Qizilbash N, Taylor JO, Hennekens CH, Blood pressure, stroke, and coronary heart disease. Part 2, Short-Term reductions in blood pressure: overview of randomised drug trials in their epidemiological context. Lancet 1990 335 827 838
3. Ninomiya T, Perkovic V, Turnbull F, Neal B, Barzi F, Cass A, Baigent C, Chalmers J, Li N, Woodward M, MacMahon S, Blood pressure lowering and major cardiovascular events in people with and without chronic kidney disease: meta-Analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2013 347 f5680
4. Gansevoort RT, Correa-Rotter R, Hemmelgarn BR, Jafar TH, Heerspink HJ, Mann JF, Matsushita K, Wen CP, Chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular risk: epidemiology, mechanisms, and prevention. Lancet 2013 382 339 352. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60595-4.
5. Zager PG, Nikolic J, Brown RH, Campbell MA, Hunt WC, Peterson D, Van Stone J, Levey A, Meyer KB, Klag MJ, Johnson HK, Clark E, Sadler JH, Teredesai P, "U" curve association of blood pressure and mortality in hemodialysis patients. Medical Directors of Dialysis Clinic, Inc. Kidney Int 1998 54 561 569. doi: 10.1046/j.1523-1755.1998.00005.x.
6. Udayaraj UP, Steenkamp R, Caskey FJ, Rogers C, Nitsch D, Ansell D, Tomson CR, Blood pressure and mortality risk on peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 2009 53 70 78. doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2008.08.030.
7. Li Z, Lacson E Jr, Lowrie EG, Ofsthun NJ, Kuhlmann MK, Lazarus JM, Levin NW, The epidemiology of systolic blood pressure and death risk in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2006 48 606 615. doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2006.07.005.
8. Agarwal R, Blood pressure components and the risk for end-stage renal disease and death in chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009 4 830 837. doi: 10.2215/CJN.06201208.
9. Berl T, Hunsicker LG, Lewis JB, Collaborative Study Group Impact of achieved blood pressure on cardiovascular outcomes in the Irbesartan Diabetic Nephropathy Trial. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005 16 2170 2179. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2004090763.
10. Mahmoodi BK, Matsushita K, Woodward M, Blankestijn PJ, Cirillo M, Ohkubo T, Rossing P, Sarnak MJ, Stengel B, Yamagishi K, Yamashita K, Zhang L, Coresh J, de Jong PE, Astor BC, Chronic Kidney Disease Prognosis Consortium Associations of kidney disease measures with mortality and end-stage renal disease in individuals with and without hypertension: A meta-Analysis. Lancet 2012 380 1649 1661. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61272-0.
11. Drazner MH, The progression of hypertensive heart disease. Circulation 2011 123 327 334. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.845792.
12. Agarwal R, Exploring the paradoxical relationship of hypertension with mortality in chronic hemodialysis. Hemodial Int 2004 8 207 213. doi: 10.1111/j.1492-7535.2004.01097.x.
13. Park M, Hsu CY, Li Y, Mishra RK, Keane M, Rosas SE, Dries D, Xie D, Chen J, He J, Anderson A, Go AS, Shlipak MG, Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort (CRIC) Study Group Associations between kidney function and subclinical cardiac abnormalities in CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2012 23 1725 1734. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2012020145.
14. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Kent GM, Harnett JD, Murray DC, Barre PE, Long-Term evolution of cardiomyopathy in dialysis patients. Kidney Int 1998 54 1720 1725. doi: 10.1046/j.1523-1755.1998.00154.x.
15. Foley RN, Curtis BM, Randell EW, Parfrey PS, Left ventricular hypertrophy in new hemodialysis patients without symptomatic cardiac disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2010 5 805 813. doi: 10.2215/CJN.07761109.
16. Mallamaci F, Zoccali C, Parlongo S, Tripepi G, Benedetto FA, Cutrupi S, Bonanno G, Fatuzzo P, Rapisarda F, Seminara G, Stancanelli B, Bellanuova I, Cataliotti A, Malatino LS, Troponin is related to left ventricular mass and predicts all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2002 40 68 75. doi: 10.1053/ajkd.2002.33914.
17. Satyan S, Light RP, Agarwal R, Relationships of N-Terminal pro-B-natriuretic peptide and cardiac troponin T to left ventricular mass and function and mortality in asymptomatic hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2007 50 1009 1019. doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2007.08.017.
18. Sharma R, Gaze DC, Pellerin D, Mehta RL, Gregson H, Streather CP, Collinson PO, Brecker SJ, Cardiac structural and functional abnormalities in end stage renal disease patients with elevated cardiac troponin T. Heart 2006 92 804 809. doi: 10.1136/hrt.2005.069666.
19. Wang TJ, Wollert KC, Larson MG, Coglianese E, McCabe EL, Cheng S, Ho JE, Fradley MG, Ghorbani A, Xanthakis V, Kempf T, Benjamin EJ, Levy D, Vasan RS, Januzzi JL, Prognostic utility of novel biomarkers of cardiovascular stress: The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 2012 126 1596 1604. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.129437.
20. deFilippi CR, de Lemos JA, Christenson RH, Gottdiener JS, Kop WJ, Zhan M, Seliger SL, Association of serial measures of cardiac troponin T using a sensitive assay with incident heart failure and cardiovascular mortality in older adults. JAMA 2010 304 2494 2502. doi: 10.1001/jama.2010.1708.
21. Bansal N, Hyre Anderson A, Yang W, High-sensitivity troponin T and N-Terminal pro-B-Type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) and risk of incident heart failure in patients with CKD: The Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort (CRIC) Study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2015 26 946 956. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2014010108.
22. Baigent C, Landray MJ, Reith C, SHARP Investigators The effects of lowering LDL cholesterol with simvastatin plus ezetimibe in patients with chronic kidney disease (Study of Heart and Renal Protection): A randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2011 377 2181 2192. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60739-3.
23. Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH, Zhang YL, Castro AF III, Feldman HI, Kusek JW, Eggers P, Van Lente F, Greene T, Coresh J, CKD-EPI (Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration) A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med 2009 150 604 612. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-150-9-200905050-00006.
24. Staplin N, Herrington WG, Judge PK, Reith CA, Haynes R, Landray MJ, Baigent C, Emberson J, Use of causal diagrams to inform the design and interpretation of observational studies: An example from the Study of Heart and Renal Protection (SHARP) [published online ahead of print August 2016]. CJASN. doi: 10.2215/CJN.02430316. http://cjasn.asnjournals.org/content/early/2016/08/22/CJN.02430316. Accessed December 19, 2016.
25. Clarke R, Shipley M, Lewington S, Youngman L, Collins R, Marmot M, Peto R, Underestimation of risk associations due to regression dilution in long-Term follow-up of prospective studies. Am J Epidemiol 1999 150 341 353
26. Carroll RJ, Ruppert D, Stefanski LA, Crainiceanu CM, Measurement Error in Nonlinear Models:A Modern Perspective 2006 2nd ed Boca Raton, FL CRC Press
27. Plummer M, Improved estimates of floating absolute risk. Stat Med 2004 23 93 104. doi: 10.1002/sim.1485.
28. Rubin D, Multiple Imputation for Non-Response inSurveys 1987 New York, NY John Wiley
29. Farnett L, Mulrow CD, Linn WD, Lucey CR, Tuley MR, The J-curve phenomenon and the treatment of hypertension. Is there a point beyond which pressure reduction is dangerous? JAMA 1991 265 489 495
30. Guérin AP, Pannier B, Métivier F, Marchais SJ, London GM, Assessment and significance of arterial stiffness in patients with chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2008 17 635 641
31. London GM, Guérin AP, Marchais SJ, Métivier F, Pannier B, Adda H, Arterial media calcification in end-stage renal disease: impact on all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003 18 1731 1740
32. Ettehad D, Emdin CA, Kiran A, Anderson SG, Callender T, Emberson J, Chalmers J, Rodgers A, Rahimi K, Blood pressure lowering for prevention of cardiovascular disease and death: A systematic review and meta-Analysis. Lancet 2016 387 957 967. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01225-8.
33. Bangalore S, Messerli FH, Wun CC, Zuckerman AL, DeMicco D, Kostis JB, LaRosa JC, Treating to New Targets Steering Committee and Investigators J-curve revisited: An analysis of blood pressure and cardiovascular events in the Treating to New Targets (TNT) Trial. Eur Heart J 2010 31 2897 2908. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehq328.
34. Dorresteijn JA, van der Graaf Y, Spiering W, Grobbee DE, Bots ML, Visseren FL, Secondary Manifestations of Arterial Disease Study Group Relation between blood pressure and vascular events and mortality in patients with manifest vascular disease: J-curve revisited. Hypertension 2012 59 14 21. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.179143.
35. Redon J, Mancia G, Sleight P, Schumacher H, Gao P, Pogue J, Fagard R, Verdecchia P, Weber M, Böhm M, Williams B, Yusoff K, Teo K, Yusuf S, ONTARGET Investigators Safety and efficacy of low blood pressures among patients with diabetes: subgroup analyses from the ONTARGET (ONgoing Telmisartan Alone and in combination with Ramipril Global Endpoint Trial). J Am Coll Cardiol 2012 59 74 83. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2011.09.040.
36. Turnbull F, Neal B, Ninomiya T, Effects of different regimens to lower blood pressure on major cardiovascular events in older and younger adults: meta-Analysis of randomised trials. BMJ 2008 336 1121 1123
37. SPRINT Research Group A randomized trial of intensive versus standard blood-pressure control. N Engl J Med 2015 373 2103 2116. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1511939.
38. Heerspink HJ, Ninomiya T, Zoungas S, de Zeeuw D, Grobbee DE, Jardine MJ, Gallagher M, Roberts MA, Cass A, Neal B, Perkovic V, Effect of lowering blood pressure on cardiovascular events and mortality in patients on dialysis: A systematic review and meta-Analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet 2009 373 1009 1015. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60212-9.
39. Appel LJ, Wright JT Jr, Greene T, AASK Collaborative Research Group Intensive blood-pressure control in hypertensive chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med 2010 363 918 929. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0910975.
40. Ruggenenti P, Perna A, Loriga G, REIN-2 Study Group Blood-pressure control for renoprotection in patients with non-diabetic chronic renal disease (REIN-2): multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005 365 939 946. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71082-5.
41. Khan NA, Hemmelgarn BR, Tonelli M, Thompson CR, Levin A, Prognostic value of troponin T and I among asymptomatic patients with end-stage renal disease: A meta-Analysis. Circulation 2005 112 3088 3096. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.560128.
42. Agarwal R, Peixoto AJ, Santos SF, Zoccali C, Pre-and postdialysis blood pressures are imprecise estimates of interdialytic ambulatory blood pressure. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2006 1 389 398. doi: 10.2215/CJN.01891105.
43. Bansal N, McCulloch CE, Rahman M, CRIC Study Investigators Blood pressure and risk of all-cause mortality in advanced chronic kidney disease and hemodialysis: The chronic renal insufficiency cohort study. Hypertension 2015 65 93 100. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.04334.