Paleodust variability since the Last Glacial Maximum and implications for iron inputs to the ocean

Geophysical Research Letters

Volumn 43, Issue 8, 2016, Pages 3944-3954

  Albani, S ^a,b   Mahowald, N M ^a   Murphy, L N ^c   Raiswell, R ^d   Moore, J K ^e   Anderson, R F ^f   McGee, D ^g   Bradtmiller, L I ^h   Delmonte, B ⁱ   Hesse, P P ^j   Mayewski, P A ^k  

^a Institute for the Study of the Continents   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COLOGNE   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^f International Research Institute for Climate and Society   (United States)

^g MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^h MACALESTER COLLEGE   (United States)

ⁱ UNIVERSITY OF MILANO BICOCCA   (Italy)

^j MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^k UNIVERSITY OF MAINE   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

dust; Holocene; iron fertilization; Last Glacial Maximum; paleodust; soluble iron

Indexed keywords

BIOGEOCHEMISTRY; CARBON; DEPOSITION; DUST; GLACIAL GEOLOGY; IRON; OCEANOGRAPHY; SEA ICE; UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS;

HOLOCENES; IRON FERTILIZATION; LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM; PALEODUST; SOLUBLE IRONS;

CLIMATE MODELS;

ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION; BIOGEOCHEMISTRY; CARBON CYCLE; CLIMATE EFFECT; DUST; HOLOCENE; IRON; LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM; PALEOENVIRONMENT; RECONSTRUCTION; SEA ICE;

SOUTHERN OCEAN;

EID: 84992302082     PISSN: 00948276     EISSN: 19448007     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/2016GL067911     Document Type: Article

References (90)

1. Abelmann, A., R. Gersonde, G. Cortese, G. Kuhn, and, V. Smetacek, (2006), Extensive phytoplankton blooms in the Atlantic sector of the glacial Southern Ocean, Paleoceanography, 21, PA1013, doi: 10.1029/2005PA001199.
2. Abelmann, A., et al., (2015), The seasonal sea-ice zone in the glacial Southern Ocean as a carbon sink, Nat. Commun., 6, 8136, doi: 10.1038/ncomms9136.
3. Albani, S., N. M. Mahowald, A. T. Perry, R. A. Scanza, N. G. Heavens, C. S. Zender, V. Maggi, J. F. Kok, and, B. L. Otto-Bliesner, (2014), Improved dust representation in the Community Atmosphere Model, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 6, 541-570, doi: 10.1002/2013MS000279.
4. Albani, S., et al., (2015), Twelve thousand years of dust: The Holocene global dust cycle constrained by natural archives, Clim. Past, 11, 869-903, doi: 10.5194/cp-11-869-2015.
5. Anderson, R. F., M. Q. Fleisher, and, Y. Lao, (2006), Glacial-interglacial variability in the delivery of dust to the central equatorial Pacific Ocean, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 242, 406-414, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2005.11.061.
6. Anderson, R. F., S. Barker, M. Fleisher, R. Gersonde, S. L. Goldstein, G. Kuhn, P. G. Mortyn, K. Pahnke, and, J. P. Sachs, (2014), Biological response to millennial variability of dust and nutrient supply in the Subantarctic South Atlantic Ocean, Philos. Trans. A. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci., 372, doi: 10.1098/rsta.2013.0054.
7. Baker, A., and, P. Croot, (2010), Atmospheric and marine controls on aerosol iron solubility in seawater, Mar. Chem., 120, 4-13, doi: 10.1016/j.marchem.2008.09.003.
8. Balkanski, Y., M. Schultz, T. Claquin, and, S. Guibert, (2007), Reevaluation of mineral aerosol radiative forcings suggests a better agreement with satellite and AERONET data, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 81-95, doi: 10.5194/acp-7-81-2007.
9. Bauer, E., and, A. Ganopolski, (2010), Aeolian dust modelling over the past four glacial cycles with CLIMBER-2, Global Planet. Change, 74, 49-60, doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.07.009.
10. Bauer, E., and, A. Ganopolski, (2014), Sensitivity simulations with direct shortwave radiative forcing by aeolian dust during glacial cycles, Clim. Past, 10 (4), 1333-1348, doi: 10.5194/cp-10-1333-2014.
11. Boucher, O., et al., (2013), Clouds and aerosols, in Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by, T. F. Stocker, et al., Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U. K., and New York.
12. Braconnot, P., et al., (2007), Results of PMIP2 coupled simulations of the mid-Holocene and Last Glacial Maximum-Part 1: Experiments and large-scale features, Clim. Past, 3, 261-277, doi: 10.5194/cp-3-261-2007.
13. Braconnot, P., S. P. Harrison, M. Kageyama, P. J. Bartlein, V. Masson-Delmotte, A. Abe-Ouchi, B. Otto-Bliesner, and, Y. Zhao, (2012), Evaluation of climate models using paleoclimatic data, Nat. Clim. Change, 2, 417-424, doi: 10.1038/nclimate1456.
14. Bradtmiller, L. I., R. F. Anderson, M. Q. Fleisher, and, L. H. Burckle, (2007), Opal burial in the equatorial Atlantic Ocean over the last 30 ka: Implications for glacial-interglacial changes in the ocean silicon cycle, Paleoceanography, 22, PA4216, doi: 10.1029/2007PA001443.
15. Brady, E. C., B. L. Otto-Bliesner, J. E. Kay, and, N. Rosenbloom, (2013), Sensitivity to glacial forcing in the CCSM4, J. Clim., 26, 1901-1925, doi: 10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00416.1.
16. Chuang, P., R. Duvall, M. Shafer, and, J. Schauer, (2005), The origin of water-soluble particulate iron in the Asian atmospheric outflow, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L07813, doi: 10.1029/2004GL021946.
17. Claquin, T., et al., (2003), Radiative forcing of climate by ice-age atmospheric dust, Clim. Dyn., 20, 193-202, doi: 10.1007/s00382-002-0269-1.
18. Delmonte, B., J.-R. Petit, K. K. Andersen, I. Basile-Doelsch, V. Maggi, and, V. Y. Lipenkov, (2004), Dust size evidence for opposite regional atmospheric circulation changes over east Antarctica during the last climatic transition, Clim. Dyn., 23, 427-438, doi: 10.1007/s00382-004-0450-9.
19. Edwards, R., and, P. Sedwick, (2001), Iron in East Antarctic snow: Implications for atmospheric iron deposition and algal production in Antarctic waters, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28 (20), 3907-3910, doi: 10.1029/2001GL012867.
20. Falkowski, P. G., R. T. Barber, and, V. Smetacek, (1998), Biogeochemical controls and feedbacks on ocean primary production, Science, 281, 200-206, doi: 10.1126/science.281.5374.200.
21. Fitzsimmons, K. E., et al., (2013), Late Quaternary palaeoenvironmental change in the Australian drylands, Quat. Sci. Rev., 74, 78-96, doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.09.007.
22. Ganopolski, A., R. Calov, and, M. Claussen, (2010), Simulation of the last glacial cycle with a coupled climate ice-sheet model of intermediate complexity, Clim. Past, 6, 229-244, doi: 10.5194/cp-6-229-2010.
23. Gent, P. R., et al., (2011), The Community Climate System Model, version 4, J. Clim., 24 (19), 4973-4991, doi: 10.1175/2011JCLI4083.1.
24. Gregg, W. W., M. E. Conkright, P. Ginoux, J. E. O'Reilly, and, N. W. Casey, (2003), Ocean primary production and climate: Global decadal changes, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30 (15), 1809, doi: 10.1029/2003GL016889.
25. Grousset, F., and, P. E. Biscaye, (2005), Tracing dust sources and transport patterns using Sr, Nd and Pb isotopes, Chem. Geol., 222, 149-167, doi: 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2005.05.006.
26. Guieu, C., S. Bonnet, T. Wagener, and, M.-D. Loye-Pilot, (2005), Biomass burning as a source of dissolved iron to the open ocean?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, L19608, doi: 10.1029/2005GL022962.
27. Guieu, C., et al., (2014), The significance of the episodic nature of atmospheric deposition to Low Nutrient Low Chlorophyll regions, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 28, 1179-1198, doi: 10.1002/2014GB004852.
28. Hesse, P. P., (1994), The record of continental dust from Australia in Tasman sea sediments, Quat. Sci. Rev., 13, 257-272, doi: 10.1016/0277-3791(94)90029-9.
29. Hesse, P. P., and, G. H. McTainsh, (2003), Australian dust deposits: Modern processes and the Quaternary record, Quat. Sci. Rev., 22, 2007-2035, doi: 10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00164-1.
30. Hunke, E. C., and, W. H. Lipscomb, (2008), CICE: The Los Alamos sea ice model, documentation and software, version 4.0. Los Alamos National Laboratory Tech. Rep. LA-CC-06-012, 76 pp.
31. Huneeus, N., et al., (2011), Global dust model intercomparison in AeroCom phase I, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 7781-7816, doi: 10.5194/acp-11-7781-2011.
32. Jahn, A., et al., (2012), Late 20th century simulation of Arctic sea ice and ocean properties in the CCSM4, J. Clim., 25 (5), 1431-1452, doi: 10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00201.1.
33. Jickells, T. D., and, L. J. Spokes, (2001), Atmospheric inputs to the ocean, in The Biogeochemistry of Iron in Seawater, edited by, D. R. Turner, and, K. A. Huneter, pp. 123-251, Wiley, New York.
34. Jickells, T. D., et al., (2005), Global iron connections between desert dust, ocean biogeochemistry, and climate, Science, 308, 67-71, doi: 10.1126/science.1105959.
35. Journet, E., K. V. Desboeufs, S. Caquineau, and, J.-L. Colin, (2008), Mineralogy as a critical factor of dust iron solubility, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L07805, doi: 10.1029/2007GL031589.
36. Journet, E., Y. Balkanski, and, S. P. Harrison, (2013), A new data set of soil mineralogy for dust-cycle modeling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 3801-3816, doi: 10.5194/acp-14-3801-2014.
37. Kaplan, J. O., et al., (2003), Climate change and Arctic ecosystems: 2. Modeling, paleodata-model comparisons, and future projections, J. Geophys. Res., 108 (D19), 8171, doi: 10.1029/2002JD002559.
38. Kohfeld, K. E., and, S. P. Harrison, (2001), DIRTMAP: The geological record of dust, Earth Sci. Rev., 54, 81-114, doi: 10.1016/S0012-8252(01)00042-3.
39. 2 cycles, Science, 308, 74-78, doi: 10.1126/science.1105375.
40. Krishnamurthy, A., J. K. Moore, N. Mahowald, C. Luo, and, C. S. Zender, (2010), Impacts of atmospheric nutrient inputs on marine biogeochemistry, J. Geophys. Res., 115, G01006, doi: 10.1029/2009JG001115.
41. Kuhnt, W., A. Holbourn, J. Xu, B. Opdyke, P. De Deckker, U. Röhl, and, M. Mudelsee, (2015), Southern Hemisphere control on Australian monsoon variability during the late deglaciation and Holocene, Nat. Commun., 6, 5916, doi: 10.1038/ncomms6916.
42. Lam, P., and, J. Bishop, (2008), The continental margin is a key source of iron to the North Pacific Ocean, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L07608, doi: 10.1029/2008GL033294.
43. Lambert, F., B. Delmonte, J.-R. Petit, M. Bigler, P. R. Kaufmann, M. A. Hutterli, T. F. Stocker, U. Ruth, J. P. Steffensen, and, V. Maggi, (2008), Dust-climate couplings over the past 800,000 years from the EPICA Dome C ice core, Nature, 452, 616-619, doi: 10.1038/nature06763.
44. Lambert, F., A. Tagliabue, G. Shaffer, F. Lamy, G. Winckler, L. Farias, L. Gallardo, and, R. De Pol-Holz, (2015), Dust fluxes and iron fertilization in Holocene and Last Glacial Maximum climates, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 6014-6023, doi: 10.1002/2015GL064250.
45. Lamy, F., R. Gersonde, G. Winckler, O. Esper, A. Jaeschke, G. Kuhn, J. Ullermann, A. Martínez-García, F. Lambert, and, R. Kilian, (2014), Increased dust deposition in the Pacific Southern Ocean during glacial periods, Science, 343 (6169), 403-407, doi: 10.1126/science.1245424.
46. Lannuzel, D., V. Schoemann, J. de Jong, J. L. Tison, and, L. Chou, (2007), Distribution and biogeochemical behavior of iron in the East Antarctic sea ice, Mar. Chem., 106, 18-32, doi: 10.1016/j.marchem.2006.06.010.
47. Li, G., and, S.-P. Xie, (2014), Tropical biases in CMIP5 multimodel ensemble: The excessive equatorial Pacific cold tongue and double ITCZ problems, J. Clim., 27, 1765-1780, doi: 10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00337.1.
48. Lunt, D., and, P. Valdes, (2002), Dust deposition and provenance at the Last Glacial Maximum and present day, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29 (22), 2085, doi: 10.1029/2002GL015656.
49. Luo, C., N. Mahowald, T. Bond, P. Y. Chuang, P. Artaxo, R. Siefert, Y. Chen, and, J. Schauer, (2008), Combustion iron distribution and deposition, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 22, GB1012, doi: 10.1029/2007GB002964.
50. Maher, B. A., J. M. Prospero, D. Mackie, D. Gaiero, P. P. Hesse, and, Y. Balkanski, (2010), Global connections between aeolian dust, climate and ocean biogeochemistry at the present day and at the Last Glacial Maximum, Earth Sci. Rev., 99, 61-97, doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.12.001.
51. Mahowald, N. M., D. R. Muhs, S. Levis, P. J. Rasch, M. Yoshioka, C. S. Zender, and, C. Luo, (2006), Change in atmospheric mineral aerosols in response to climate: Last glacial period, preindustrial, modern, and doubled carbon dioxide climates, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D10202, doi: 10.1029/2005JD006653.
52. Mahowald, N. M., et al., (2009), Atmospheric iron deposition: Global distribution, variability, and human perturbations, Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci., 1, 245-278, doi: 10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163727.
53. Mahowald, N. M., S. Albani, S. Engelstaedter, G. Winckler, and, M. Goman, (2011), Model insight into glacial-interglacial paleodust records, Quat. Sci. Rev., 30 (7-8), 832-854, doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.09.007.
54. Mahowald, N., S. Albani, J. F. Kok, S. Engelstaedter, R. Scanza, D. S. Ward, and, M. G. Flanner, (2014), The size distribution of desert dust aerosols and its impact on the Earth system, Aeolian Res., 15, 53-71, doi: 10.1016/j.aeolia.2013.09.002.
55. Marticorena, B., and, G. Bergametti, (1995), Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle: 1. Design of a soil-derived dust emission scheme, J. Geophys. Res., 100 (D8), 16,415-16,430, doi: 10.1029/95JD00690.
56. Martin, J. H., R. M. Gordon, and, S. E. Fitzwater, (1990), Iron in Antarctic waters, Nature, 353 (6340), 156-158, doi: 10.1038/345156a0.
57. 2 over the last 1.1 Ma, Paleoceanography, 24, PA1207, doi: 10.1029/2008PA001657.
58. Martínez-García, A., D. M. Sigman, H. Ren, R. F. Anderson, M. Straub, D. A. Hodell, S. L. Jaccard, T. I. Eglinton, and, G. H. Haug, (2014), Iron fertilization of the Subantarctic Ocean during the Last Ice Age, Science, 343 (6177), 1347-1350, doi: 10.1126/science.1246848.
59. Mayewski, P. A., L. D. Meeker, M. S. Twickler, S. Whitlow, Q. Yang, W. B. Lyons, and, M. Prentice, (1997), Major features and forcing of high-latitude northern hemisphere atmospheric circulation using a 110,000-year-long glaciochemical series, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 26,345-26,366, doi: 10.1029/96JC03365.
60. McGee, D., F. Marcantonio, and, J. Lynch-Stieglitz, (2007), Deglacial changes in dust flux in the eastern equatorial Pacific, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 257, 215-230, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2007.02.033.
61. McGee, D., P. B. deMenocal, G. Winckler, J. B. W. Stuut, and, L. I. Bradtmiller, (2013), The magnitude, timing and abruptness of changes in North African dust deposition over the last 20,000 yr, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 371-372, 163-176, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2013.03.054.
62. Meskhidze, N., W. Chameides, and, A. Nenes, (2005), Dust and pollution: A recipe for enhanced ocean fertilization?, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D03301, doi: 10.1029/2004JD005082.
63. Miller, R., and, I. Tegen, (1998), Climate response to soil dust aerosols, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 11, 3247-3267, doi: 10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011<3247:CRTSDA>2.0.CO;2.
64. Moore, C. M., et al., (2013), Processes and patterns of oceanic nutrient limitation, Nat. Geosci., 6, 701-710, doi: 10.1038/ngeo1765.
65. Moore, J. K., and, O. Braucher, (2008), Sedimentary and mineral dust sources of dissolved iron to the world ocean, Biogeosciences, 5, 631-656, doi: 10.5194/bg-5-631-2008.
66. Moore, J. K., S. C. Doney, K. Lindsay, and, N. Mahowald, (2006), Nitrogen fixation amplifies the ocean biogeochemical response to decadal timescale variations in mineral dust deposition, Tellus B, 58, 560-572, doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0889.2006.00209.x.
67. Murphy, L. N., A. C. Clement, S. Albani, N. M. Mahowald, P. Swart, and, M. M. Arienzo, (2014), Simulated changes in atmospheric dust in response to a Heinrich stadial, Paleoceanography, 29, 30-43, doi: 10.1002/2013PA002550.
68. Okin, G., N. Mahowald, O. Chadwick, and, P. Artaxo, (2004), The impact of desert dust on the biogeochemistry of phosphorus in terrestrial ecosystems, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18, GB2005, doi: 10.1029/2003GB002145.
69. Prospero, J. M., P. Ginoux, O. Torres, S. E. Nicholson, and, T. E. Gill, (2002), Environmental characterization of global sources of atmospheric soil dust identified with the Nimbus 7 Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) absorbing aerosol product, Rev. Geophys., 40 (1), 1002, doi: 10.1029/2000RG000095.
70. Raiswell, R., et al., (2016), Potentially bioavailable iron delivery by iceberg-hosted sediments and atmospheric dust to the Polar Ocean, Biogeosci. Discuss., doi: 10.5194/bg-2016-20.
71. Ratmeyer, V., G. Fischer, and, G. Wefer, (1999), Lithogenic particle fluxes and grain size distributions in the deep ocean off NW Africa: Implications for seasonal changes of aeolian dust input and downward transport, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 46, 1289-1337, doi: 10.1016/S0967-0637(99)00008-4.
72. Scanza, R. A., N. Mahowald, S. Ghan, C. S. Zender, J. F. Kok, X. Liu, Y. Zhang, and, S. Albani, (2015), Modeling dust as component minerals in the Community Atmosphere Model: Development of framework and impact on radiative forcing, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 537-561, doi: 10.5194/acp-15-537-2015.
73. Schroth, A. W., J. Crusius, E. R. Sholkovitz, and, B. C. Bostick, (2009), Iron solubility driven by speciation in dust sources to the ocean, Nat. Geosci., 2, 337-340, doi: 10.1038/ngeo501.
74. Serno, S., G. Winckler, R. F. Anderson, E. Maier, H. Ren, R. Gersonde, and, G. H. Haug, (2015), Comparing dust flux records from the Subarctic North Pacific and Greenland: Implications for atmospheric transport to Greenland and for the application of dust as a chronostratigraphic tool, Paleoceanography, 30, 583-600, doi: 10.1002/2014PA002748.
75. Shao, Y., K.-H. Wyrwoll, A. Chappell, J. Huang, Z. Lin, G. H. McTainsh, M. Mikami, T. Y. Tanaka, X. Wang, and, S. Yoon, (2011), Dust cycle: An emerging core theme in Earth system science, Aeolian Res., 2, 181-204.
76. Shi, Z., M. D. Krom, T. D. Jickells, S. Bonneville, K. S. Carslaw, N. Mihalopoulos, A. R. Baker, and, L. G. Benning, (2012), Impacts on iron solubility in the mineral dust by processes in the source region and the atmosphere: A review, Aeolian Res., 5, 21-42, doi: 10.1016/j.aeolia.2012.03.001.
77. Sholkovitz, E., P. Sedwick, T. Church, A. Baker, and, C. Powell, (2012), Fractional solubility of aerosol iron: Synthesis of a global-scale data set, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 89, 173-189, doi: 10.1016/j.gca.2012.04.022.
78. Sudarchikova, N., U. Mikolajewicz, C. Timmreck, D. O'Donnell, G. Schurgers, D. Sein, and, K. Zhang, (2015), Modelling of mineral dust for interglacial and glacial climate conditions with a focus on Antarctica, Clim. Past, 11, 765-779, doi: 10.5194/cp-11-765-2015.
79. Tagliabue, A., L. Bopp, and, O. Aumont, (2009), Evaluating the importance of atmospheric and sedimentary iron sources to Southern Ocean biogeochemistry, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L13601, doi: 10.1029/2009GL038914.
80. Tagliabue, A., O. Aumont, and, L. Bopp, (2014), The impact of different external sources of iron on the global carbon cycle, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 920-926, doi: 10.1002/2013GL059059.
81. Takemura, T., M. Egashira, K. Matsuzawa, H. Ichijo, R. O'ishi, and, A. Abe-Ouchi, (2009), A simulation of the global distribution and radiative forcing of soil dust aerosols at the Last Glacial Maximum, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 3061-3073, doi: 10.5194/acp-9-3061-2009.
82. Wang, S., D. Bailey, K. Lindsay, J. K. Moore, and, M. Holland, (2014), Impact of sea ice on the marine iron cycle and phytoplankton productivity, Biogeosciences, 11, 4713-4731, doi: 10.5194/bg-11-4713-2014.
83. Ward, D. S., S. Kloster, N. M. Mahowald, B. M. Rogers, J. T. Randerson, and, P. G. Hess, (2012), The changing radiative forcing of fires: Global model estimates for past, present and future, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12 (22), 10,857-10,886, doi: 10.5194/acp-12-10857-2012.
84. 2, Nature, 407, 730-733, doi: 10.1038/35037561.
85. Werner, M., I. Tegen, S. P. Harrison, K. E. Kohfeld, I. C. Prentice, Y. Balkanski, H. Rodhe, and, C. Roelandt, (2002), Seasonal and interannual variability of the mineral dust cycle under present and glacial climate conditions, J. Geophys. Res., 107 (D24), 4744, doi: 10.1029/2002JD002365.
86. Winckler, G., R. F. Anderson, M. Q. Fleisher, D. McGee, and, N. Mahowald, (2008), Covariant glacial-interglacial dust fluxes in the equatorial Pacific and Antarctica, Science, 320, 93-96, doi: 10.1126/science.1150595.
87. Yue, X., H. Wang, H. Liao, and, D. Jiang, (2011), Simulation of the direct radiative effect of mineral dust aerosol on the climate at the Last Glacial Maximum, J. Clim., 24, 843-858, doi: 10.1175/2010JCLI3827.1.
88. Zender, C. S., H. Bian, and, D. Newman, (2003), Mineral dust entrainment and deposition (DEAD) model: Description and 1990s dust climatology, J. Geophys. Res., 108 (D14), 4416, doi: 10.1029/2002JD002775.
89. Zhu, X., J. Prospero, and, F. Millero, (1997), Diel variability of soluble Fe(II) and soluble total Fe in North Africa dust in the trade winds at Barbados, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 21,297-21,305, doi: 10.1029/97JD01313.
90. 2 levels linked to the Southern Ocean carbon isotope gradient and dust flux, Nat. Geosci., 6, 457-461, doi: 10.1038/ngeo1782.