Guillain-Barré syndrome: causes, immunopathogenic mechanisms and treatment

Expert Review of Clinical Immunology

Volumn 12, Issue 11, 2016, Pages 1175-1189

  Jasti, Anil K ^a   Selmi, Carlo ^b,c   Sarmiento Monroy, Juan C ^d   Vega, Daniel A ^e   Anaya, Juan Manuel ^d   Gershwin, M Eric ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b HUMANITAS CLINICAL AND RESEARCH CENTER   (Italy)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

^d UNIVERSIDAD DEL ROSARIO   (Colombia)

^e HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARIO MAYOR MÉDERI   (Colombia)

Author keywords

autoimmune neuropathy; Guillain Barr ; immune tolerance; infection and immunity; Molecular mimicry

Indexed keywords

EPITOPE; GANGLIOSIDE ANTIBODY; AUTOANTIBODY; GANGLIOSIDE;

AGING; ANTIBODY BLOOD LEVEL; CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS; CLINICAL FEATURE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GUILLAIN BARRE SYNDROME; HUMAN; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS; MACROPHAGE ACTIVATION; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; T LYMPHOCYTE; CAMPYLOBACTER JEJUNI; CROSS REACTION; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; IMMUNOLOGY; IMMUNOTHERAPY; METABOLISM; PROCEDURES;

AGING; AUTOANTIBODIES; CAMPYLOBACTER INFECTIONS; CAMPYLOBACTER JEJUNI; CROSS REACTIONS; GANGLIOSIDES; GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; GUILLAIN-BARRE SYNDROME; HUMANS; IMMUNOTHERAPY;

EID: 84992052404     PISSN: 1744666X     EISSN: 17448409     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/1744666X.2016.1193006     Document Type: Review

References (219)

1. W.E.Haymaker, J.W.Kernohan The Landry-Guillain-Barré syndrome; a clinicopathologic report of 50 fatal cases and a critique of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore). 1949;28:59–141.• The first report of Guillain–Barré syndrome in a historically relevant report.
2. T.E.Feasby, J.J.Gilbert, W.F.Brown, et al. An acute axonal form of Guillain-Barré polyneuropathy. Brain. 1986;109:1115–1126.
3. K.A.Sheikh, I.Nachamkin, T.W.Ho, et al. Campylobacter jejuni lipopolysaccharides in Guillain-Barre syndrome:molecular mimicry and host susceptibility. Neurology. 1998;51:371–378.
4. H.J.Willison. The immunobiology of Guillain-Barré syndromes. J Peripher Nerv Syst. 2005;10:94–112.
5. N.Yuki, K.Susuki, M.Koga, et al. Carbohydrate mimicry between human ganglioside GM1 and Campylobacter jejuni lipooligosaccharide causes Guillain-Barre syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101:11404–11409.•• A solid demonstration of the mechanisms linking Campylobacter infection and Guillain–Barré syndrome autoantibodies by molecular mimicry.
6. N.Yuki, H.-P.Hartung. Guillain-Barré syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:2294–2304.
7. R.A.C.Hughes, A.V.Swan, J.-C.Raphaël, et al. Immunotherapy for Guillain-Barré syndrome:a systematic review. Brain. 2007;130:2245–2257.
8. R.Aharoni. Immunomodulation neuroprotection and remyelination – the fundamental therapeutic effects of glatiramer acetate:a critical review. J Autoimmun. 2014;54:81–92.
9. M.Schwartz, K.Baruch. Breaking peripheral immune tolerance to CNS antigens in neurodegenerative diseases:boosting autoimmunity to fight-off chronic neuroinflammation. J Autoimmun. 2014;54:8–14.
10. A.Ben-Nun, N.Kaushansky, N.Kawakami, et al. From classic to spontaneous and humanized models of multiple sclerosis:impact on understanding pathogenesis and drug development. J Autoimmun. 2014;54:33–50.
11. J.A.Hollenbach, J.R.Oksenberg. The immunogenetics of multiple sclerosis:a comprehensive review. J Autoimmun. 2015;64:13–25.
12. D.Karussis. The diagnosis of multiple sclerosis and the various related demyelinating syndromes:a critical review. J Autoimmun. 2014;48-49:134–142.
13. L.Steinman, Y.Shoenfeld. From defining antigens to new therapies in multiple sclerosis:honoring the contributions of Ruth Arnon and Michael Sela. J Autoimmun. 2014;54:1–7.
14. A.-H.Saariaho, A.Vuorela, T.L.Freitag, et al. Autoantibodies against ganglioside GM3 are associated with narcolepsy-cataplexy developing after Pandemrix vaccination against 2009 pandemic H1N1 type influenza virus. J Autoimmun. 2015;63:68–75.
15. Y.Wang, S.Sun, J.Zhu, et al. Biomarkers of Guillain-Barre syndrome:some recent progress, more still to be explored. Mediators Inflamm. 2015;2015:564098.
16. J.J.Sejvar, A.L.Baughman, M.Wise, et al. Population incidence of Guillain-Barré syndrome:a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroepidemiology. 2011;36:123–133.• A meta-analysis of the Guillain–Barré syndrome epidemiology data which also highlights the study limitations.
17. Z.Islam, B.C.Jacobs, M.B.Islam, et al. High incidence of Guillain-Barre syndrome in children, Bangladesh. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17:1317–1318.
18. M.S.G.Rocha, S.M.D.Brucki, A.A.D.S.Carvalho, et al. Epidemiologic features of Guillain-Barré syndrome in São Paulo, Brazil. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2004;62:33–37.
19. G.Zhang, Q.Li, R.Zhang, et al. Subtypes and prognosis of Guillain-Barré syndrome in Southwest China. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0133520.
20. I.Nachamkin, P.Arzarte Barbosa, H.Ung, et al. Patterns of Guillain-Barre syndrome in children:results from a Mexican population. Neurology. 2007;69:1665–1671.
21. R.D.Hadden, D.R.Cornblath, R.A.Hughes, et al. Electrophysiological classification of Guillain-Barré syndrome:clinical associations and outcome. Plasma Exchange/Sandoglobulin Guillain-Barré Syndrome Trial Group. Ann Neurol. 1998;44:780–788.
22. Z.Islam, B.C.Jacobs, A.van Belkum, et al. Axonal variant of Guillain-Barre syndrome associated with Campylobacter infection in Bangladesh. Neurology. 2010;74:581–587.
23. G.Deceuninck, R.-M.Boucher, P.De Wals, et al. Epidemiology of Guillain-Barré syndrome in the province of Quebec. Can J Neurol Sci. 2008;35:472–475.
24. S.J.Winner, J.G.Evans. Age-specific incidence of Guillain-Barré syndrome in Oxfordshire. Q J Med. 1990;77:1297–1304.
25. V.Govoni, E.Granieri, M.Manconi, et al. Is there a decrease in Guillain-Barré syndrome incidence after bovine ganglioside withdrawal in Italy? A population-based study in the Local Health District of Ferrara, Italy. J Neurol Sci. 2003;216:99–103.
26. G.Bogliun, E.Beghi, Italian GBS Registry Study Group. Incidence and clinical features of acute inflammatory polyradiculoneuropathy in Lombardy, Italy, 1996. Acta Neurol Scand. 2004;110:100–106.
27. A.Chiò, D.Cocito, M.Leone, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome:a prospective, population-based incidence and outcome survey. Neurology. 2003;60:1146–1150.
28. M.J.Sedano, J.Calleja, E.Canga, et al. Guillain-Barre syndrome in Cantabria, Spain. An epidemiological and clinical study. Acta Neurol Scand. 1994;89:287–292.
29. Y.Aladro-Benito, M.A.Conde-Sendin, C.Munoz-Fernandez, et al. Guillain-Barre syndrome in the northern area of Gran Canaria and the island of Lanzarote. Rev Neurol. 2002;35:705–710.
30. J.I.Cuadrado, J.de Pedro-Cuesta, J.R.Ara, et al. Guillain-Barre syndrome in Spain, 1985–1997:epidemiological and public health views. Eur Neurol. 2001;46:83–91.
31. J.I.Cuadrado, J.de Pedro-Cuesta, J.R.Ara, et al. Public health surveillance and incidence of adulthood Guillain-Barré syndrome in Spain, 1998–1999:the view from a sentinel network of neurologists. Neurol Sci. 2004;25:57–65.
32. Q.Cheng, G.X.Jiang, S.Fredrikson, et al. Incidence of Guillain-Barré syndrome in Sweden 1996. Eur J Neurol. 2000;7:11–16.
33. E.Beghi, L.T.Kurland, D.W.Mulder, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome. Clinicoepidemiologic features and effect of influenza vaccine. Arch Neurol. 1985;42:1053–1057.
34. L.B.Schonberger, D.J.Bregman, J.Z.Sullivan-Bolyai, et al. Guillain-Barre syndrome following vaccination in the National Influenza Immunization Program, United States, 1976–1977. Am J Epidemiol. 1979;110:105–123.
35. R.A.C.Hughes, J.H.Rees. Clinical and epidemiologic features of Guillain-Barré syndrome. J Infect Dis. 1997;176(s2):SS92–SS98.
36. C.C.Tam, L.C.Rodrigues, I.Petersen, et al. Incidence of Guillain-Barre syndrome among patients with Campylobacter infection:a general practice research database study. J Infect Dis. 2006;194:95–97.
37. B.C.Jacobs, P.H.Rothbarth, F.G.van der Meché, et al. The spectrum of antecedent infections in Guillain-Barré syndrome:a case-control study. Neurology. 1998;51:1110–1115.
38. B.R.Wakerley, N.Yuki. Infectious and noninfectious triggers in Guillain-Barre syndrome. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2013;9:627–639.
39. R.D.Hadden, H.Karch, H.P.Hartung, et al. Preceding infections, immune factors, and outcome in Guillain-Barre syndrome. Neurology. 2001;56:758–765.
40. C.J.Williams, R.H.Thomas, T.P.Pickersgill, et al. Cluster of atypical adult Guillain-Barré syndrome temporally associated with neurological illness due to EV-D68 in children, South Wales, United Kingdom, October 2015 to January 2016. Euro Surveill. 2016;21(4).
41. D.W.Smith, J.Mackenzie. Zika virus and Guillain-Barré syndrome:another viral cause to add to the list. Lancet. 2016;387:1486–1488. pii:S0140-6736(16)00564-X
42. A.Gervaix, M.Caflisch, S.Suter, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome following immunisation with Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine. Eur J Pediatr. 1993;152:613–614.
43. E.Israeli, N.Agmon-Levin, M.Blank, et al. Guillain-Barre syndrome – a classical autoimmune disease triggered by infection or vaccination. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2012;42:121–130.
44. M.Gilbert, M.-F.Karwaski, S.Bernatchez, et al. The genetic bases for the variation in the lipo-oligosaccharide of the mucosal pathogen, Campylobacter jejuni. Biosynthesis of sialylated ganglioside mimics in the core oligosaccharide. J Biol Chem. 2002;277:327–337.
45. N.Kokubun, N.Shahrizaila, K.Hirata, et al. Conduction block and axonal degeneration co-occurring in a patient with axonal Guillain-Barré syndrome. J Neurol Sci. 2012;319:164–167.
46. S.Kuwabara, K.Ogawara, S.Misawa, et al. Does Campylobacter jejuni infection elicit ‘demyelinating’ Guillain-Barre syndrome? Neurology. 2004;63:529–533.
47. J.Drenthen, N.Yuki, J.Meulstee, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome subtypes related to Campylobacter infection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2011;82:300–305.
48. N.Yuki, H.Yoshino, S.Sato, et al. Acute axonal polyneuropathy associated with anti-GM1 antibodies following Campylobacter enteritis. Neurology. 1990;40:1900–1902.
49. T.W.Ho, H.J.Willison, I.Nachamkin, et al. Anti-GD1a antibody is associated with axonal but not demyelinating forms of Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1999;45:168–173.
50. N.Yuki, T.Taki, F.Inagaki, et al. A bacterium lipopolysaccharide that elicits Guillain-Barré syndrome has a GM1 ganglioside-like structure. J Exp Med. 1993;178:1771–1775.
51. B.van den Berg, C.Walgaard, J.Drenthen, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome:pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis. Nat Rev Neurol. 2014;10:469–482.
52. K.K.Nyati, R.Nyati. Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barre syndrome:an update. Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:852195.
53. M.B.Sharma, R.Chaudhry, I.Tabassum, et al. The presence of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and GM1 ganglioside antibodies in Guillain-Barré syndrome. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2011;5:459–464.
54. S.Kusunoki, M.Shiina, I.Kanazawa. Anti-Gal-C antibodies in GBS subsequent to mycoplasma infection:evidence of molecular mimicry. Neurology. 2001;57:736–738.
55. N.Yuki, T.Taki, S.Handa. Antibody to GalNAc-GD1a and GalNAc-GM1b in Guillain-Barre syndrome subsequent to Campylobacter jejuni enteritis. J Neuroimmunol. 1996;71:155–161.
56. K.Susuki, M.Odaka, M.Mori, et al. Acute motor axonal neuropathy after Mycoplasma infection:evidence of molecular mimicry. Neurology. 2004;62:949–956.
57. J.B.Winer. An update in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Autoimmune Dis. 2014;2014:793024.
58. R.S.Houliston, M.Koga, J.Li, et al. A Haemophilus influenzae strain associated with Fisher syndrome expresses a novel disialylated ganglioside mimic. Biochemistry. 2007;46:8164–8171.
59. B.Miller, H.Kassenborg, W.Dunsmuir, et al. Syndromic surveillance for influenzalike illness in ambulatory care setting. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10:1806–1811.
60. M.Koga, S.Koike, K.Hirata, et al. Ambiguous value of Haemophilus influenzae isolation in Guillain-Barre and Fisher syndromes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76:1736–1738.
61. A.P.Moran, M.M.Prendergast, B.J.Appelmelk. Molecular mimicry of host structures by bacterial lipopolysaccharides and its contribution to disease. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 1996;16:105–115.
62. M.Mori, S.Kuwabara, M.Miyake, et al. Haemophilus influenzae infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome. Brain. 2000;123:2171–2178.
63. M.C.Nahata. Ophthalmoplegia following enteric fever. J Indian Med Assoc. 1961;37:134–135.
64. F.Nager, F.Regli. Polyneuritis with flaccid tetraplegia in typhoid fever. Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1963;93:1030–1033.
65. S.K.Samantray, S.C.Johnson, K.V.Mathai, et al. Landry-Guillain-Barré-Strohl syndrome. A study of 302 cases. Med J Aust. 1977;2:84–91.
66. B.O.Osuntokun, O.Bademosi, K.Ogunremi, et al. Neuropsychiatric manifestations of typhoid fever in 959 patients. Arch Neurol. 1972;27:7–13.
67. F.Y.Khan, A.A.Kamha, M.T.Abbas, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with Salmonella paratyphi A. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2007;109:452–454.
68. S.Nafissi, Z.Vahabi, M.Sadeghi Ghahar, et al. The role of cytomegalovirus, Haemophilus influenzae and Epstein Barr virus in Guillain Barre syndrome. Acta Med Iran. 2013;51:372–376.
69. D.Orlikowski, R.Porcher, V.Sivadon-Tardy, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome following primary cytomegalovirus infection:a prospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:837–844.
70. H.J.Willison, B.C.Jacobs, P.A.van Doorn. Guillain-Barré syndrome. Lancet. 2016. S0140-6736(16)00339-1.
71. E.Klemola, N.Weckman, K.Haltia, et al. The Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with acquired cytomegalovirus infection. Acta Med Scand. 1967;181:603–607.
72. N.Yuki, Y.Tagawa. Acute cytomegalovirus infection and IgM anti-GM2 antibody. J Neurol Sci. 1998;154:14–17.
73. M.Alhefzi, M.A.Aycart, E.M.Bueno, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with resistant cytomegalovirus infection after face transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis. 2016;18:288–292.
74. C.Spagnoli, A.Iodice, G.G.Salerno, et al. CMV-associated axonal sensory-motor Guillain-Barre syndrome in a child:case report and review of the literature. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2016;20:168–175.
75. A.Taheraghdam, P.Pourkhanjar, M.Talebi, et al. Correlations between cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, anti-ganglioside antibodies, electrodiagnostic findings and functional status in Guillain-Barre syndrome. Iran J Neurol. 2014;13:7–12.
76. M.Kennedy, M.Apostolova. A rare case of infectious mononucleosis complicated by Guillain-Barre syndrome. Neurol Int. 2013;5:20–22.
77. Y.RhoII. Overlapping Guillain-Barre syndrome and Bickerstaff’s brainstem encephalitis associated with Epstein Barr virus. Korean J Pediatr. 2014;57:457–460.
78. M.Bitan, R.Or, M.Y.Shapira, et al. Early-onset Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with reactivation of Epstein-Barr virus infection after nonmyeloablative stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:1076–1078.
79. S.Y.Kim, K.-W.Choe, S.Park, et al. Mild form of Guillain-Barre syndrome in a patient with primary Epstein-Barr virus infection. Korean J Intern Med. 2016.
80. J.-H.Kang, J.-J.Sheu, H.-C.Lin. Increased risk of Guillain-Barré Syndrome following recent herpes zoster:a population-based study across Taiwan. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:525–530.
81. P.Tatarelli, M.Garnero, V.Del Bono, et al. Guillain-Barre syndrome following chickenpox:a case series. Int J Neurosci. 2016;126:478–479.
82. C.C.Tam, S.J.O’Brien, I.Petersen, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome and preceding infection with campylobacter, influenza and Epstein-Barr virus in the general practice research database. PLoS One. 2007;2:e344.
83. J.Stowe, N.Andrews, L.Wise, et al. Investigation of the temporal association of Guillain-Barre syndrome with influenza vaccine and influenzalike illness using the United Kingdom General Practice Research Database. Am J Epidemiol. 2009;169:382–388.
84. V.Sivadon-Tardy, D.Orlikowski, R.Porcher, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome and influenza virus infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:48–56.
85. A.Cortese, F.Baldanti, E.Tavazzi, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with the D222E variant of the 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus:case report and review of the literature. J Neurol Sci. 2012;312:173–176.
86. M.Kutlesa, M.Santini, V.Krajinović, et al. Acute motor axonal neuropathy associated with pandemic H1N1 influenza A infection. Neurocrit Care. 2010;13:98–100.
87. L.Grimaldi-Bensouda, A.Alpérovitch, G.Besson, et al. Guillain-Barre syndrome, influenzalike illnesses, and influenza vaccination during seasons with and without circulating A/H1N1 viruses. Am J Epidemiol. 2011;174:326–335.
88. B.S.Simpson, Y.A.Rajabally. Sensori-motor Guillain-Barré syndrome with anti-GD1b antibodies following influenza A infection. Eur J Neurol. 2009;16:e81.
89. N.Yuki, Y.Takahashi, T.Ihara, et al. Lack of antibody response to Guillain-Barré syndrome-related gangliosides in mice and men after novel flu vaccination. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2012;83:116–117.
90. C.Beadling, M.K.Slifka. How do viral infections predispose patients to bacterial infections? Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2004;17:185–191.
91. C.Vellozzi, S.Iqbal, K.Broder. Guillain-Barre syndrome, influenza, and influenza vaccination:the epidemiologic evidence. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1149–1155.
92. D.R.Cornblath, J.C.McArthur, P.G.Kennedy, et al. Inflammatory demyelinating peripheral neuropathies associated with human T-cell lymphotropic virus type III infection. Ann Neurol. 1987;21:32–40.
93. J.C.Wagner, M.B.Bromberg. HIV infection presenting with motor axonal variant of Guillain-Barré syndrome. J Clin Neuromuscul Dis. 2007;9:303–305.
94. A.Hiraga, S.Kuwabara, A.Nakamura, et al. Fisher/Gullain-Barré overlap syndrome in advanced AIDS. J Neurol Sci. 2007;258:148–150.
95. J.R.Berger, J.A.Difini, M.A.Swerdloff, et al. HIV seropositivity in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1987;22:393–394.
96. A.M.Piette, F.Tusseau, D.Vignon, et al. Acute neuropathy coincident with seroconversion for anti-LAV/HTLV-III. Lancet. 1986;327:852.
97. O.Parry, J.Mielke, A.S.Latif, et al. Peripheral neuropathy in individuals with HIV infection in Zimbabwe. Acta Neurol Scand. 1997;96:218–222.
98. P.J.Piliero, D.G.Fish, S.Preston, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with immune reconstitution. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:e111–4.
99. T.H.Brannagan, Y.Zhou. HIV-associated Guillain-Barré syndrome. J Neurol Sci. 2003;208:39–42.
100. F.J.Sorvillo, L.E.Lieb, S.H.Waterman. Incidence of campylobacteriosis among patients with AIDS in Los Angeles County. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1991;4:598–602.
101. M.C.Dalakas, G.H.Pezeshkpour. Neuromuscular diseases associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Ann Neurol. 1988;23(S1):SS38–SS48.
102. N.Souayah, N.F.Mian, Y.Gu, et al. Elevated anti-sulfatide antibodies in Guillain-Barré syndrome in T cell depleted at end-stage AIDS. J Neuroimmunol. 2007;188:143–145.
103. E.J.Garcia-Rivera, V.Vorndam, J.G.Rigau-Perez, et al. Use of an enhanced surveillance system for encephalitis and aseptic meningitis for the detection of neurologic manifestations of dengue in Puerto Rico, 2003. P R Health Sci J. 2009;28:114–120.
104. S.Kumar, S.Prabhakar. Guillain-Barre syndrome occurring in the course of dengue fever. Neurol India. 2005;53:250–251.
105. C.Sulekha, S.Kumar, J.Philip. Guillain-Barre syndrome following dengue fever. Indian Pediatr. 2004;41:948–950.
106. M.Puccioni-Sohler, C.N.Soares, R.Papaiz-Alvarenga, et al. Neurologic dengue manifestations associated with intrathecal specific immune response. Neurology. 2009;73:1413–1417.
107. A.Palma-da Cunha-Matta, S.A.Soares-Moreno, A.Cardoso-de Almeida, et al. Neurological complications arising from dengue virus infection. Rev Neurol. 2004;39:233–237.
108. E.Oehler, O.Le Henaff, P.Larre, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome following type 4 dengue in Polynesia. Méd Trop (Mars). 2011;71:203–204.
109. E.Gonçalves. Acute inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (Guillain-Barré syndrome) following dengue fever. Rev Do Inst Med Trop São Paulo. 2011;53:223–225.
110. S.T.Jackson, A.Mullings, F.Bennett, et al. Dengue infection in patients presenting with neurological manifestations in a dengue endemic population. West Indian Med J. 2008;57:373–376.
111. T.-Y.Chen, C.-T.Lee. Guillain-Barré syndrome following dengue fever. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;50:94–95.
112. N.Q.Santos, A.C.B.Azoubel, A.A.Lopes, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome in the course of dengue:case report. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2004;62:144–146.
113. A.Esack, S.Teelucksingh, N.Singh. The Guillain-Barré syndrome following dengue fever. West Indian Med J. 1999;48:36–37.
114. C.N.Soares, M.Cabral-Castro, C.Oliveira, et al. Oligosymptomatic dengue infection:a potential cause of Guillain Barré syndrome. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2008;66:234–237.
115. S.C.Chaudhary, D.Mohanty, S.K.Sonkar, et al. Unusual manifestation of dengue fever. BMJ Case Rep. 2011 Jun 29;2011.
116. H.S.Hira, A.Kaur, A.Shukla. Acute neuromuscular weakness associated with dengue infection. J Neurosci Rural Pract. 2012;3:36–39.
117. R.Verma, R.Sahu, V.Holla. Neurological manifestations of dengue infection:a review. J Neurol Sci. 2014;346:26–34.
118. D.M.P.Ralapanawa, S.A.M.Kularatne, W.A.T.A.Jayalath. Guillain-Barre syndrome following dengue fever and literature review. BMC Res Notes. 2015;8:729.
119. E.Oehler, E.Fournier, I.Leparc-Goffart, et al. Increase in cases of Guillain-Barré syndrome during a chikungunya outbreak, French Polynesia, 2014 to 2015. Euro Surveill. 2015;20(48):30079.
120. W.Villamil-Gómez, L.A.Silvera, J.Páez-Castellanos, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome after chikungunya infection:A case in Colombia. Enfermedades Infecc Y Microbiol Clínica. 2016;34:140–141.
121. M.C.Jaffar-Bandjee, D.Ramful, B.A.Gauzere, et al. Emergence and clinical insights into the pathology of chikungunya virus infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2010;8:987–996.
122. G.Lebrun, K.Chadda, A.-H.Reboux, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome after chikungunya infection. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15:495–496.
123. P.Tournebize, C.Charlin, M.Lagrange. Neurological manifestations in chikungunya:about 23 cases collected in Reunion Island. Rev Neurol. 2009;165:48–51.
124. J.Lemant, V.Boisson, A.Winer, et al. Serious acute chikungunya virus infection requiring intensive care during the Reunion Island outbreak in 2005–2006. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:2536–2541.
125. A.C.Wielanek, J.De Monredon, M.El Amrani, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome complicating a chikungunya virus infection. Neurology. 2007;69:2105–2107.
126. A.Economopoulou, M.Dominguez, B.Helynck, et al. Atypical chikungunya virus infections:clinical manifestations, mortality and risk factors for severe disease during the 2005–2006 outbreak on Réunion. Epidemiol Infect. 2009;137:534–541.
127. E.Oehler, L.Watrin, P.Larre, et al. Zika virus infection complicated by Guillain-Barre syndrome – case report, French Polynesia, December 2013. Euro Surveill. 2014;19:9.
128. J.-M.Anaya, C.Ramirez-Santana, I.Salgado-Castaneda, et al. Zika virus and neurologic autoimmunity:the putative role of gangliosides. BMC Med. 2016;14:49.• A convincing discussion of the link between Zika virus infection and Guillain–Barré syndrome.
129. S.C.Weaver, F.Costa, M.A.Garcia-Blanco, et al. Zika virus:history, emergence, biology, and prospects for control. Antiviral Res. 2016;130:69–80.
130. S.N.Ladhani, C.O’Connor, H.Kirkbride, et al. Outbreak of Zika virus disease in the Americas and the association with microcephaly, congenital malformations and Guillain-Barré syndrome. Arch Dis Child. 2016 Mar 14.
131. H.Malkki. CNS infections:Zika virus infection could trigger Guillain-Barré syndrome. Nat Rev Neurol. 2016;12:187.
132. F.J.Carod-Artal. Epidemiology and neurological complications of infection by the Zika virus:a new emerging neurotropic virus. Rev Neurol. 2016;62:317–328.
133. B.Roze, F.Najioullah, J.-L.Ferge, et al. Zika virus detection in urine from patients with Guillain-Barré syndrome on Martinique, January 2016. Euro Surveill. 2016;21(9).
134. V.-M.Cao-Lormeau, A.Blake, S.Mons, et al. Guillain-Barré Syndrome outbreak associated with Zika virus infection in French Polynesia:a case-control study. Lancet. 2016;387:1531–1539.
135. J.Wise. Study links Zika virus to Guillain-Barré syndrome. BMJ. 2016;352:i1242.
136. C.Chang, K.Ortiz, A.Ansari, et al. The Zika outbreak of the 21st century. J Autoimmun. 2016;68:1–13.
137. D.L.Thomas, T.M.Sharp, J.Torres, et al. Local transmission of Zika virus – Puerto Rico, November 23, 2015-January 28, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65(6):154–158.
138. V.L.Pinto Junior, K.Luz, R.Parreira, et al. Zika virus:a review to clinicians. Acta Médica Port. 2015;28:760–765.
139. D.Gatherer, A.Kohl. Zika virus:a previously slow pandemic spreads rapidly through the Americas. J Gen Virol. 2016;97:269–273.
140. C.F.J.Ayres. Identification of Zika virus vectors and implications for control. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16:278–279.
141. S.Ioos, H.-P.Mallet, I.Leparc Goffart, et al. Current Zika virus epidemiology and recent epidemics. Médecine Mal Infect. 2014;44:302–307.
142. D.R.Lucey. Time for global action on Zika virus epidemic. BMJ. 2016;352:i781.
143. C.W.Ang, B.C.Jacobs, J.D.Laman. The Guillain-Barré syndrome:a true case of molecular mimicry. Trends Immunol. 2004;25:61–66.
144. N.Shahrizaila, N.Yuki. Guillain-Barré syndrome animal model:the first proof of molecular mimicry in human autoimmune disorder. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2011;2011:829129.
145. J.Anaya, Y.Shoenfeld, A.Rojas-Villarraga, et al. Autoimmunity. From bench to bedside. Bogotá:El Rosario University Press; 2013.
146. A.K.Asbury, B.G.Arnason, R.D.Adams. The inflammatory lesion in idiopathic polyneuritis. Its role in pathogenesis. Medicine (Baltimore). 1969;48:173–215.
147. J.W.Prineas. Pathology of the Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1981;9(S1):6–19.
148. J.Pritchard, A.Makowska, N.A.Gregson, et al. Reduced circulating CD4+CD25+ cell populations in Guillain-Barré syndrome. J Neuroimmunol. 2007;183:232–238.
149. C.Hafer-Macko, S.T.Hsieh, C.Y.Li, et al. Acute motor axonal neuropathy:an antibody-mediated attack on axolemma. Ann Neurol. 1996;40:635–644.
150. R.A.C.Hughes, D.R.Cornblath. Guillain-Barré syndrome. Lancet. 2005;366:1653–1666.• A comprehensive overview of Guillain–Barré syndrome.
151. J.Berciano, A.García, J.Figols, et al. Perineurium contributes to axonal damage in acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. Neurology. 2000;55:552–559.
152. K.K.Nyati, K.N.Prasad, A.Rizwan, et al. TH1 and TH2 response to Campylobacter jejuni antigen in Guillain-Barre syndrome. Arch Neurol. 2011;68:445–452.
153. S.Li, T.Jin, H.-L.Zhang, et al. Circulating Th17, Th22, and Th1 cells are elevated in the Guillain-Barré syndrome and downregulated by IVIg treatments. Mediators Inflamm. 2014;2014:740947.
154. Y.Gong, Y.Tagawa, M.P.T.Lunn, et al. Localization of major gangliosides in the PNS:implications for immune neuropathies. Brain. 2002;125:2491–2506.•• The article reports the association between gangliosides recognized by serum autoantibodies, their tissue distribution, and the clinical phenotype.
155. S.Kuwabara, N.Kokubun, S.Misawa, et al. Neuromuscular transmission is not impaired in axonal Guillain–Barré syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2011;82:1174–1177.
156. A.Chiba, S.Kusunoki, H.Obata, et al. Serum anti-GQ1b IgG antibody is associated with ophthalmoplegia in Miller Fisher syndrome and Guillain-Barré syndrome:clinical and immunohistochemical studies. Neurology. 1993;43:1911–1917.
157. S.Kusunoki, A.Chiba, I.Kanazawa. Anti-GQ1b IgG antibody is associated with ataxia as well as ophthalmoplegia. Muscle Nerve. 1999;22:1071–1074.
158. J.-X.Liu, H.J.Willison, F.Pedrosa-Domellöf. Immunolocalization of GQ1b and related gangliosides in human extraocular neuromuscular junctions and muscle spindles. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2009;50:3226–3232.
159. K.Kaida, D.Morita, M.Kanzaki, et al. Ganglioside complexes as new target antigens in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Neurol. 2004;56:567–571.
160. M.Ito, S.Kuwabara, M.Odaka, et al. Bickerstaff’s brainstem encephalitis and Fisher syndrome form a continuous spectrum:clinical analysis of 581 cases. J Neurol. 2008;255:674–682.
161. T.Nagashima, M.Koga, M.Odaka, et al. Continuous spectrum of pharyngeal-cervical-brachial variant of Guillain-Barre syndrome. Arch Neurol. 2007;64:1519–1523.
162. N.Yuki, M.Yamada, M.Koga, et al. Animal model of axonal Guillain-Barré syndrome induced by sensitization with GM1 ganglioside. Ann Neurol. 2001;49:712–720.
163. A.Uncini, N.Yuki. Sensory Guillain-Barré syndrome and related disorders:an attempt at systematization. Muscle Nerve. 2012;45:464–470.
164. H.Koike, H.Watanabe, G.Sobue. The spectrum of immune-mediated autonomic neuropathies:insights from the clinicopathological features. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2013;84:98–106.
165. N.Yuki, N.Kokubun, S.Kuwabara, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with normal or exaggerated tendon reflexes. J Neurol. 2012;259:1181–1190.
166. A.Hiraga, M.Mori, K.Ogawara, et al. Differences in patterns of progression in demyelinating and axonal Guillain-Barré syndromes. Neurology. 2003;61:471–474.
167. M.Asahina, S.Kuwabara, A.Suzuki, et al. Autonomic function in demyelinating and axonal subtypes of Guillain-Barré syndrome. Acta Neurol Scand. 2002;105:44–50.
168. S.Kuwabara, N.Yuki. Axonal Guillain-Barré syndrome:concepts and controversies. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12:1180–1188.
169. T.Kanda, H.Hayashi, H.Tanabe, et al. A fulminant case of Guillain-Barré syndrome:topographic and fibre size related analysis of demyelinating changes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1989;52:857–864.
170. J.Berciano, F.Coria, F.Montón, et al. Axonal form of Guillain-Barré syndrome:evidence for macrophage-associated demyelination. Muscle Nerve. 1993;16:744–751.
171. M.Mori, S.Kuwabara, T.Fukutake, et al. Clinical features and prognosis of Miller Fisher syndrome. Neurology. 2001;56:1104–1106.
172. M.Koga, H.Yoshino, M.Morimatsu, et al. Anti-GT1a IgG in Guillain-Barré syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002;72:767–771.
173. A.K.Asbury. Diagnostic considerations in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1981;9(S1):1–5.
174. A.K.Asbury, D.R.Cornblath. Assessment of current diagnostic criteria for Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1990;27(S1):SS21–SS24.
175. B.R.Wakerley, A.Uncini, N.Yuki, GBS Classification Group. Guillain-Barré and Miller Fisher syndromes – new diagnostic classification. Nat Rev Neurol. 2014;10:537–544.
176. C.Fokke, B.van den Berg, J.Drenthen, et al. Diagnosis of Guillain-Barré syndrome and validation of Brighton criteria. Brain. 2014;137:33–43.•• An overview and validation effort for Guillain–Barré syndrome diagnostic criteria.
177. J.J.Sejvar, K.S.Kohl, J.Gidudu, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome and Fisher syndrome:case definitions and guidelines for collection, analysis, and presentation of immunization safety data. Vaccine. 2011;29:599–612.
178. A.H.Y.Wong, T.Umapathi, Y.Nishimoto, et al. Cytoalbuminologic dissociation in Asian patients with Guillain-Barré and Miller Fisher syndromes. J Peripher Nerv Syst. 2015;20:47–51.
179. T.Kurt Incesu, Y.Secil, F.Tokucoglu, et al. Diagnostic value of lumbar root stimulation at the early stage of Guillain-Barré syndrome. Clin Neurophysiol. 2013;124:197–203.
180. E.Gallardo, M.J.Sedano, P.Orizaola, et al. Spinal nerve involvement in early Guillain-Barré syndrome:a clinico-electrophysiological, ultrasonographic and pathological study. Clin Neurophysiol. 2015;126:810–819.
181. A.Grimm, B.F.Décard, A.Schramm, et al. Ultrasound and electrophysiologic findings in patients with Guillain-Barré syndrome at disease onset and over a period of six months. Clin Neurophysiol. 2016;127:1657–1663.
182. M.Luigetti, S.Servidei, A.Modoni, et al. Admission neurophysiological abnormalities in Guillain-Barré syndrome:A single-center experience. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2015;135:6–10.
183. A.Derksen, C.Ritter, P.Athar, et al. Sural sparing pattern discriminates Guillain-Barré syndrome from its mimics. Muscle Nerve. 2014;50:780–784.
184. P.Y.K.Van den Bergh, F.Piéret. Electrodiagnostic criteria for acute and chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy. Muscle Nerve. 2004;29:565–574.
185. A.Uncini, S.Kuwabara. Electrodiagnostic criteria for Guillain-Barrè syndrome:a critical revision and the need for an update. Clin Neurophysiol. 2012;123:1487–1495.
186. K.Mori, N.Hattori, M.Sugiura, et al. Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy presenting with features of GBS. Neurology. 2002;58:979–982.
187. B.R.Wakerley, N.Yuki. Mimics and chameleons in Guillain-Barre and Miller Fisher syndromes. Pract Neurol. 2015;15:90–99. doi:10.1136/practneurol-2014-000937.
188. H.Koike, M.Iijima, M.Sugiura, et al. Alcoholic neuropathy is clinicopathologically distinct from thiamine-deficiency neuropathy. Ann Neurol. 2003;54:19–29.
189. J.A.Chalela. Pearls and pitfalls in the intensive care management of Guillain-Barré syndrome. Semin Neurol. 2001;21:399–406.
190. M.I.Polkey, R.A.Lyall, J.Moxham, et al. Respiratory aspects of neurological disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;66:5–15.
191. G.Zhang, H.C.Lehmann, N.Bogdanova, et al. Erythropoietin enhances nerve repair in anti-ganglioside antibody-mediated models of immune neuropathy. PLoS One. 2011;6:e27067.
192. G.Zhang, H.C.Lehmann, S.Manoharan, et al. Anti-ganglioside antibody-mediated activation of RhoA induces inhibition of neurite outgrowth. J Neurosci. 2011;31:1664–1675.
193. The Guillain-Barré syndrome Study Group. Plasmapheresis and acute Guillain-Barré syndrome. Neurology. 1985;35:1096–1104.
194. The French Cooperative Group on Plasma Exchange in Guillain-Barré Syndrome. Appropriate number of plasma exchanges in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1997;41:298–306.
195. F.G.van der Meché, P.I.Schmitz. A randomized trial comparing intravenous immune globulin and plasma exchange in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:1123–1129.
196. B.C.Jacobs, G.M.O’Hanlon, R.W.M.Bullens, et al. Immunoglobulins inhibit pathophysiological effects of anti-GQ1b-positive sera at motor nerve terminals through inhibition of antibody binding. Brain. 2003;126:2220–2234.
197. K.Kuitwaard, J.de Gelder, A.P.Tio-Gillen, et al. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous immunoglobulin and outcome in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Neurol. 2009;66:597–603.
198. M.Mori, S.Kuwabara, T.Fukutake, et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for Miller Fisher syndrome. Neurology. 2007;68:1144–1146.
199. R.van Koningsveld, P.I.M.Schmitz, F.G.A.Meché, et al. Effect of methylprednisolone when added to standard treatment with intravenous immunoglobulin for Guillain-Barré syndrome:randomised trial. Lancet. 2004;363:192–196.
200. D.Vega, M.Peña, P.Lorenzana. Sindrome de Guillain-Barré (SGB). Acta Colomb Cuid Intensivo. 2008;8:219–228.
201. A.B.Netto, A.B.Taly, G.B.Kulkarni, et al. Mortality in mechanically ventilated patients of Guillain Barré Syndrome. Ann Indian Acad Neurol. 2011;14:262–266.
202. C.Selmi, P.L.Meroni, M.E.Gershwin. Primary biliary cirrhosis and Sjögren’s syndrome:autoimmune epithelitis. J Autoimmun. 2012;39:34–42.
203. F.W.Miller, K.M.Pollard, C.G.Parks, et al. Criteria for environmentally associated autoimmune diseases. J Autoimmun. 2012;39:253–258.
204. C.Selmi, P.S.C.Leung, D.H.Sherr, et al. Mechanisms of environmental influence on human autoimmunity:a National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences expert panel workshop. J Autoimmun. 2012;39:272–284.
205. C.Selmi, M.E.Gershwin. The role of environmental factors in primary biliary cirrhosis. Trends Immunol. 2009;30:415–420.
206. F.D’Amico, E.Skarmoutsou, M.C.Mazzarino. The sex bias in systemic sclerosis:on the possible mechanisms underlying the female disease preponderance. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2014;47:334–343.
207. Y.Saito, H.Saito, G.Liang, et al. Epigenetic alterations and microRNA misexpression in cancer and autoimmune diseases:a critical review. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2014;47:128–135.
208. C.Selmi, Q.Lu, M.C.Humble. Heritability versus the role of the environment in autoimmunity. J Autoimmun. 2012;39:249–252.
209. S.Adutler-Lieber, I.Zaretsky, I.Platzman, et al. Engineering of synthetic cellular microenvironments:implications for immunity. J Autoimmun. 2014;54:100–111.
210. W.E.Jenkinson, N.I.McCarthy, E.E.Dutton, et al. Natural Th17 cells are critically regulated by functional medullary thymic microenvironments. J Autoimmun. 2015;63:13–22.
211. M.Tsuda, T.R.Torgerson, C.Selmi, et al. The spectrum of autoantibodies in IPEX syndrome is broad and includes anti-mitochondrial autoantibodies. J Autoimmun. 2010;35:265–268.
212. D.P.Bogdanos, D.S.Smyk, E.I.Rigopoulou, et al. Twin studies in autoimmune disease:genetics, gender and environment. J Autoimmun. 2012;38:J156–69.
213. C.Selmi. The X in sex:how autoimmune diseases revolve around sex chromosomes. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2008;22:913–922.
214. C.Selmi, C.A.Feghali-Bostwick, A.Lleo, et al. X chromosome gene methylation in peripheral lymphocytes from monozygotic twins discordant for scleroderma. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169:253–262.
215. M.M.Mitchell, A.Lleo, L.Zammataro, et al. Epigenetic investigation of variably X chromosome inactivated genes in monozygotic female twins discordant for primary biliary cirrhosis. Epigenetics. 2011;6:95–102.
216. I.Rogatsky, U.Chandrasekaran, M.Manni, et al. Epigenetics and the IRFs:a complex interplay in the control of immunity and autoimmunity. Autoimmunity. 2014;47:242–255.
217. H.Zan. Epigenetics in lupus. Autoimmunity. 2014;47:213–214.
218. F.Meda, M.Folci, A.Baccarelli, et al. The epigenetics of autoimmunity. Cell Mol Immunol. 2011;8:226–236.
219. Q.Lu, Y.Renaudineau, S.Cha, et al. Epigenetics in autoimmune disorders:highlights of the 10th Sjögren’s syndrome symposium. Autoimmun Rev. 2010;9:627–630.