Verbal fluency in bipolar disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Journal of Affective Disorders

Volumn 207, Issue , 2017, Pages 359-366

  Raucher Chéné, Delphine ^a,b   Achim, Amélie M ^c,d   Kaladjian, Arthur ^a,b   Besche Richard, Chrystel ^b  

^a REIMS UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (France)

^b Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne   (France)

^c UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL   (Canada)

^d CENTRE DE RECHERCHE DE L INSTITUT UNIVERSITAIRE EN SANTÉ MENTALE DE QUÉBEC   (Canada)

Author keywords

Bipolar disorder; Mood state; Verbal fluency

Indexed keywords

BIPOLAR DISORDER; DISEASE SEVERITY; EFFECT SIZE; FLUENCY DISORDER; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; MANIA; MENTAL PERFORMANCE; MENTAL TASK; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); PHONETICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; ADULT; AFFECT; ATTENTION; COGNITION DISORDERS; COMPLICATION; FEMALE; LANGUAGE; MALE; META ANALYSIS; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; SPEECH DISORDERS;

ADULT; AFFECT; ATTENTION; BIPOLAR DISORDER; COGNITION DISORDERS; FEMALE; HUMANS; LANGUAGE; MALE; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; SPEECH DISORDERS;

EID: 84991696140     PISSN: 01650327     EISSN: 15732517     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2016.09.039     Document Type: Review

References (94)

1. de Almeida, Rocca C.C., de Macedo-Soares, M.B., Gorenstein, C., Tamada, R.S., Isller, C.K., Dias, R.S., Lafer, B., Verbal fluency dysfunction in euthymic bipolar patients: a controlled study. J. Affect. Disord. 107:1 (2008), 187–192.
2. Aloia, M.S., Gourovitch, M.L., Missar, D., Pickar, D., Weinberger, D.R., Goldberg, T.E., Cognitive substrates of thought disorder, II: specifying a candidate cognitive mechanism. Am. J. Psychiatry 155 (1998), 1677–1684.
3. Altshuler, L.L., Ventura, J., van Gorp, W.G., Green, M.F., Theberge, D.C., Mintz, J., Neurocognitive function in clinically stable men with bipolar I disorder or schizophrenia and normal control subjects. Biol. Psychiatry 56 (2004), 560–569.
4. Altshuler, L.L., Bearden, C.E., Green, M.F., van Gorp, W., Mintz, J., A relationship between neurocognitive impairment and functional impairment in bipolar disorder: a pilot study. Psychiatry Res. 157:1 (2008), 289–293.
5. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed., 2000, Author, Washington, DC text rev.
6. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed., 2013, Author, Washington, DC text rev.
7. Andreasen, N.C., Scale for the assessment of thought, language, and communication (TLC). Schizophr. Bull., 12(3), 1986, 473.
8. Andreasen, N.C., Grove, W.M., Thought, language, and communication in schizophrenia: diagnosis and prognosis. Schizophr. Bull., 12(3), 1986, 348.
9. Andreou, C., Bozikas, V.P., Ramnalis, A., Giannakou, M., Fokas, K., Semantic priming in remitted patients with bipolar disorder. J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 44 (2013), 48–52.
10. Aprahamian, I., Ladeira, R.B., Diniz, B.S., Forlenza, O.V., Nunes, P.V., Cognitive impairment in euthymic older adults with bipolar disorder: a controlled study using cognitive screening tests. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 22 (2014), 389–397.
11. Balanzá-Martínez, V., Tabarés-Seisdedos, R., Selva-Vera, G., Martínez-Arán, A., Torrent, C., Salazar-Fraile, J., Leal-Cercós, C., Vieta, E., Gómez-Beneyto, M., Persistent cognitive dysfunctions in bipolar I disorder and schizophrenic patients: a 3-year follow-up study. Psychother. Psychosom. 74 (2005), 113–119.
12. Baldo, J.V., Schwartz, S., Wilkins, D., Dronkers, N.F., Role of frontal versus temporal cortex in verbal fluency as revealed by voxel-based lesion symptom mapping. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 12 (2006), 896–900.
13. Barrett, S.L., Kelly, C., Bell, R., King, D.J., Gender influences the detection of spatial working memory deficits in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 10 (2008), 647–654.
14. Basso, M.R., Lowery, N., Neel, J., Purdie, R., Bornstein, R.A., Neuropsychological impairment among manic, depressed, and mixed-episode inpatients with bipolar disorder. Neuropsychol, 16(1), 2002, 84.
15. Bearden, C.E., Glahn, D.C., Caetano, S., Olvera, R.L., Fonseca, M., Najt, P., Hunter, K., Pliszka, S.R., Soares, J.C., Evidence for disruption in prefrontal cortical functions in juvenile bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 9:Suppl 1 (2007), 145–159.
16. Bega, S., Schaffer, A., Goldstein, B., Levitt, A., Differentiating between bipolar disorder types I and II: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions (NESARC). J. Affect. Disord. 138 (2012), 46–53.
17. Benton, A.L., Differential behavioral effects in frontal lobe disease. Neuropsychologia 6:1 (1968), 53–60.
18. Benton, A.L., Hamsher, K.D., Multilingual examination. 1976, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA.
19. Birn, R.M., Kenworthy, L., Case, L., Caravella, R., Jones, T.B., Bandettini, P.A., Martin, A., Neural systems supporting lexical search guided by letter and semantic category cues: a self-paced overt response fMRI study of verbal fluency. Neuroimage 49:1 (2010), 1099–1107.
20. Bora, E., Developmental trajectory of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder: comparison with schizophrenia. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 25 (2015), 158–168.
21. Bora, E., Vahip, S., Akdeniz, F., Gonul, A.S., Eryavuz, A., Ogut, M., Alkan, M., The effect of previous psychotic mood episodes on cognitive impairment in euthymic bipolar patients. Bipolar Disord. 9 (2007), 468–477.
22. Bora, E., Yucel, M., Pantelis, C., Cognitive endophenotypes of bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis of neuropsychological deficits in euthymic patients and their first-degree relatives. J. Affect. Disord. 113 (2009), 1–20.
23. Bourne, C., Aydemir, O., Balanza-Martinez, V., Bora, E., Brissos, S., Cavanagh, J.T.O., Clark, L., Cubukcuoglu, Z., Videira Dias, V., Dittmann, S., Ferrier, I.N., Fleck, D.E., Frangou, S., Gallagher, P., Jones, L., Kieseppä, T., Martınez-Aran, A., Melle, I., Moore, P.B., Mur, M., Pfennig, A., Raust, A., Senturk, V., Simonsen, C., Smith, D.J., Bio, D.S., Soeiro-de-Souza, M.G., Stoddart, S.D.R., Sundet, K., Szöke, A., Thompson, J.M., Torrent, C., Zalla, T., Craddock, N., Andreassen, O.A., Leboyer, M., Vieta, E., Bauer, M., Worhunsky, P.D., Tzagarakis, C., Rogers, R.D., Geddes, J.R., Goodwin, G.M., Neuropsychological testing of cognitive impairment in euthymic bipolar disorder: an individual patient data meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 128 (2013), 149–162.
24. Bozikas, V.P., Kosmidis, M.H., Karavatos, A., Disproportionate impairment in semantic verbal fluency in schizophrenia: differential deficit in clustering. Schizophr. Res. 74:1 (2005), 51–59.
25. Burdick, K.E., Goldberg, T.E., Cornblatt, B. a, Keefe, R.S., Gopin, C.B., Derosse, P., Braga, R.J., Malhotra, A.K., The MATRICS consensus cognitive battery in patients with bipolar I disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 36 (2011), 1587–1592.
26. Caramazza, A., Mahon, B.Z., The organization of conceptual knowledge: the evidence from category-specific semantic deficits. Trends Cogn. Sci. 7:8 (2003), 354–361.
27. Cardebat, D., Doyon, B., Puel, M., Goulet, P., Joanette, Y., Evocation lexicale formelle et sémantique chez des sujets normaux. Performances et dynamiques de production en fonction du sexe, de l'âge et du niveau d'étude. Acta Neurol. Belg. 90:4 (1990), 207–217.
28. Cavanagh, J.T.O., Beck, M.V.A.N., Muir, W., Blackwood, D.H.R., Case control study of neurocognitive function in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder: an association with mania. Br. J. Psychiatry 180 (2002), 320–326.
29. Chang, J.S., Choi, S., Ha, K., Ha, T.H., Cho, H.S., Choi, J.E., Cha, B., Moon, E., Differential pattern of semantic memory organization between bipolar I and II disorders. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 35 (2011), 1053–1058.
30. Clark, L., Iversen, S.D., Goodwin, G.M., The influence of positive and negative mood states on risk taking, verbal fluency, and salivary cortisol. J. Affect. Disord. 63 (2001), 179–187.
31. Cohen, J., Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 2nd ed., 1988, Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
32. Costafreda, S.G., Fu, C.H.Y., Picchioni, M., Kane, F., McDonald, C., Prata, D.P., Kalidindi, S., Walshe, M., Curtis, V., Bramon, E., Kravariti, E., Marshall, N., Toulopoulou, T., Barker, G.J., David, A.S., Brammer, M.J., Murray, R.M., McGuire, P.K., Increased inferior frontal activation during word generation: a marker of genetic risk for schizophrenia but not bipolar disorder?. Hum. Brain Mapp. 30 (2009), 3287–3298.
33. Curtis, V.A., Dixon, T.A., Morris, R.G., Bullmore, E.T., Brammer, M.J., Williams, S.C., Sharma, T., Murray, R., McGuire, P.K., Differential frontal activation in schizophrenia and bipolar illness during verbal fluency. J. Affect. Disord. 66 (2001), 111–121.
34. Depp, C., Moore, D.J., Sitzer, D., Palmer, B.W., Eyler, L.T., Roesch, S., Lebowitz, B.D., Jeste, D.V., Neurocognitive impairment in middle-aged and older adults with bipolar disorder: comparison to schizophrenia and normal comparison subjects. J. Affect. Disord. 101 (2007), 201–209.
35. Dixon, T., Kravariti, E., Frith, C., Murray, R.M., McGuire, P.K., Effect of symptoms on executive function in bipolar illness. Psychol. Med. 34 (2004), 811–821.
36. Erol, F., Putgul, G., Ersoy, B., Kosge, A., Ventral prefrontal executive function impairment as a potential endophenotypic marker for bipolar disorder. Nord. J. Psychiatry 68 (2014), 18–23.
37. Frangou, S., Donaldson, S., Hadjulis, M., Landau, S., Goldstein, L.H., The Maudsley Bipolar Disorder Project: executive dysfunction in bipolar disorder I and its clinical correlates. Biol. Psychiatry 58 (2005), 859–864.
38. Frangou, S., Dakhil, N., Landau, S., Kumari, V., Fronto-temporal function may distinguish bipolar disorder from schizophrenia. Bipolar Disord. 8 (2006), 47–55.
39. Goodwin, G.M., Martinez-Aran, a, Glahn, D.C., Vieta, E., Cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder: neurodevelopment or neurodegeneration? An ECNP expert meeting report. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 18 (2008), 787–793.
40. Hedlund, J.L., Vieweg, B.W., The Hamilton rating scale for depression: a comprehensive review. J. Operational. Psychiatry 10:2 (1979), 149–165.
41. Henry, J., Crawford, J., A meta-analytic review of verbal fluency deficits in schizophrenia relative to other neurocognitive deficits. Cognit. Neuropsychiatry 10:1 (2005), 1–33.
42. Henry, J.D., Crawford, J.R., Phillips, L.H., Verbal fluency performance in dementia of the alzheimer's type: a meta-analysis. Neuropsychologia 42 (2004), 1212–1222.
43. Hermens, D.F., Naismith, S.L., Redoblado Hodge, M.A., Scott, E.M., Hickie, I.B., Impaired verbal memory in young adults with unipolar and bipolar depression. Early Interv. Psychiatry 4 (2010), 227–233.
44. Ives-Deliperi, V.L., Howells, F., Stein, D.J., Meintjes, E.M., Horn, N., The effects of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in patients with bipolar disorder: a controlled functional MRI investigation. J. Affect. Disord. 150 (2013), 1152–1157.
45. Kameyama, M., Fukuda, M., Yamagishi, Y., Sato, T., Uehara, T., Ito, M., Suto, T., Mikuni, M., Frontal lobe function in bipolar disorder: a multichannel near-infrared spectroscopy study. Neuroimage 29 (2006), 172–184.
46. Kravariti, E., Dixon, T., Frith, C., Murray, R., McGuire, P., Association of symptoms and executive function in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophr. Res. 74 (2005), 221–231.
47. Kremen, W.S., Seidman, L.J., Faraone, S.V., Tsuang, M.T., Is there disproportionate impairment in semantic or phonemic fluency in schizophrenia?. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 9:01 (2003), 79–88.
48. Kurtz, M.M., Gerraty, R.T., A meta-analytic investigation of neurocognitive deficits in bipolar illness: profile and effects of clinical state. Neuropsychol, 23(5), 2009, 551.
49. Lebowitz, B.K., Shear, P.K., Steed, M.A., Strakowski, S.M., Verbal fluency in mania: relationship to number of manic episodes. Cog. Behav. Neurology 14:3 (2001), 177–182.
50. Lee, R.S.C., Hermens, D.F., Scott, J., Redoblado-Hodge, M.A., Naismith, S.L., Lagopoulos, J., Griffiths, K.R., Porter, M. a, Hickie, I.B., A meta-analysis of neuropsychological functioning in first-episode bipolar disorders. J. Psychiatr. Res. 57 (2014), 1–11.
51. Lewandowski, K.E., Cohen, B.M., Öngur, D., Evolution of neuropsychological dysfunction during the course of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Psychol. Med. 41:02 (2011), 225–241.
52. Lezak, M., Neuropsychological testing. 1995, University Press, Oxford.
53. Lopera-Vasquez, J., Bell, V., López-Jaramillo, C., What is the Contribution of Executive Dysfunction to the Cognitive Profile of Bipolar Disorder? A Well-Controlled Direct Comparison Study. Rev. Colomb. Psiquiatr. 40:Supple (2011), 64S–75S.
54. Mann-Wrobel, M.C., Carreno, J.T., Dickinson, D., Meta-analysis of neuropsychological functioning in euthymic bipolar disorder: an update and investigation of moderator variables. Bipolar Disord. 13 (2011), 334–342.
55. Martinez-Arán, A., Vieta, E., Functional outcome in bipolar disorder: the role of clinical and cognitive factors. Bipolar Disord. 9:1–2 (2007), 103–113.
56. Martínez-Arán, A., Vieta, E., Colom, F., Torrent, C., Sánchez-Moreno, J., Reinares, M., Benabarre, A., Goikolea, J.M., Brugue, E., Daban, C., Salamero, M., Cognitive impairment in euthymic bipolar patients: implications for clinical and functional outcome. Bipolar Disord. 6 (2004), 224–232.
57. Masouy, A., Chopard, G., Vandel, P., Magnin, E., Rumbach, L., Sechter, D., Haffen, E., Bipolar disorder and dementia: where is the link?. Psychogeriatrics 11:1 (2011), 60–67.
58. Matsuo, K., Kato, N., Kato, T., Decreased cerebral haemodynamic response to cognitive and physiological tasks in mood disorders as shown by near-infrared spectroscopy. Psychol. Med. 32:06 (2002), 1029–1037.
59. Matsuo, K., Watanabe, A., Onodera, Y., Kato, N., Kato, T., Prefrontal hemodynamic response to verbal-fluency task and hyperventilation in bipolar disorder measured by multi-channel near-infrared spectroscopy. J. Affect. Disord. 82 (2004), 85–92.
60. Matsuo, K., Kouno, T., Hatch, J.P., Seino, K., Ohtani, T., Kato, N., Kato, T., A near-infrared spectroscopy study of prefrontal cortex activation during a verbal fluency task and carbon dioxide inhalation in individuals with bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 9 (2007), 876–883.
61. Meesters, P.D., Schouws, S., Stek, M., de Haan, L., Smit, J., Eikelenboom, P., Beekman, A., Comijs, H., Cognitive impairment in late life schizophrenia and bipolar I disorder. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 28 (2013), 82–90.
62. Meyer, S.E., Carlson, G. a, Wiggs, E. a, Martinez, P.E., Ronsaville, D.S., Klimes-Dougan, B., Gold, P.W., Radke-Yarrow, M., A prospective study of the association among impaired executive functioning, childhood attentional problems, and the development of bipolar disorder. Dev. Psychopathol. 16 (2004), 461–476.
63. Mur, M., Portella, M.J., Martínez-Arán, A., Pifarré, J., Vieta, E., Persistent neuropsychological deficit in euthymic bipolar patients: executive function as a core deficit. J. Clin. Psychiatry 68 (2007), 1078–1086.
64. Nehra, R., Chakrabarti, S., Pradhan, B.K., Khehra, N., Comparison of cognitive functions between first- and multi-episode bipolar affective disorders. J. Affect. Disord. 93 (2006), 185–192.
65. Neill, E., Gurvich, C., Rossell, S.L., Category fluency in schizophrenia research: is it an executive or semantic measure? Cogn. Neuropsychiatry 19 (2014), 81–95.
66. Nishimura, Y., Takahashi, K., Ohtani, T., Ikeda-Sugita, R., Kasai, K., Okazaki, Y., Dorsolateral prefrontal hemodynamic responses during a verbal fluency task in hypomanic bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord., 2014, 1–12.
67. Porter, R.J., Robinson, L.J., Malhi, G.S., Gallagher, P., The neurocognitive profile of mood disorders - a review of the evidence and methodological issues. Bipolar Disord. 17 (2015), 21–40.
68. Radanovic, M., Nunes, P.V., Forlenza, O.V., Braga Ladeira, R., Gattaz, W.F., Cognitive-linguistic deficits in euthymic elderly patients with bipolar disorder. J. Affect. Disord. 150 (2013), 691–694.
69. Ratheesh, A., Lin, A., Nelson, B., Wood, S.J., Brewer, W., Betts, J., Berk, M., McGorry, P., Yung, A.R., Bechdolf, A., Neurocognitive functioning in the prodrome of mania-an exploratory study. J. Affect. Disord. 147 (2013), 441–445.
70. Robinson, L.J., Thompson, J.M., Gallagher, P., Goswami, U., Young, A.H., Ferrier, I.N., Moore, P.B., A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder. J. Affect. Disord. 93 (2006), 105–115.
71. Rosenthal, R., Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Sage, 6, 1991.
72. Rosenthal, R., DiMatteo, M. R., 2002. Meta‐Analysis. Stevens' handbook of experimental psychology.
73. Rosnow, R.L., Rosenthal, R., Effect sizes for experimenting psychologists. Can. J. Exp. Psychol., 57(3), 2003, 221.
74. Rossell, S.L., David, A.S., Are semantic deficits in schizophrenia due to problems with access or storage?. Schizophr. Res. 82:2 (2006), 121–134.
75. Rossell, S.L., Van Rheenen, T.E., Groot, C., Gogos, A., O'Regan, A., Joshua, N.R., Investigating affective prosody in psychosis: a study using the comprehensive affective testing system. Psychiatry Res. 210:3 (2013), 896–900.
76. Ruff, R.M., Light, R.H., Parker, S.B., Levin, H.S., The psychological construct of word fluency. Brain Lang. 57:3 (1997), 394–405.
77. Ryan, K.A., Vederman, A.C., McFadden, E.M., Weldon, A.L., Kamali, M., Langenecker, S.A., McInnis, M.G., Differential executive functioning performance by phase of bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 14 (2012), 527–536.
78. Schouws, S.N.T.M., Zoeteman, J.B., Comijs, H.C., Stek, M.L., Beekman, A.T.F., Cognitive functioning in elderly patients with early onset bipolar disorder. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 22:9 (2007), 856–861.
79. Spitzer, M., Weisbrod, M., Winkler, S., Maier, S., [Event-related potentials in semantic speech processing by schizophrenic patients]. Der Nervenarzt 68:3 (1997), 212–225.
80. Sung, K., Gordon, B., Vannorsdall, T.D., Ledoux, K., Schretlen, D.J., Impaired retrieval of semantic information in bipolar disorder: a clustering analysis of category-fluency productions. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 122 (2013), 624–634.
81. Thompson, J.M., Gallagher, P., Hughes, J.H., Watson, S., Gray, J.M., Ferrier, I.N., Young, A.H., Neurocognitive impairment in euthymic patients with bipolar affective disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 186 (2005), 32–40.
82. Thompson, J.M., Gray, J.M., Hughes, J.H., Watson, S., Young, A.H., Ferrier, I.N., Impaired working memory monitoring in euthymic bipolar patients. Bipolar Disord. 9 (2007), 478–489.
83. Torrent, C., Martínez-Arán, A., Daban, C., Sanchez-Moreno, J., Comes, M., Goikolea, J.M., Salamero, M., Vieta, E., C., Cognitive impairment in bipolar II disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 189 (2006), 254–259.
84. Torrent, C., Bonnin, M., Martínez-Arán, A., Valle, J., Amann, B.L., González-Pinto, A., Mayoral, M., Efficacy of functional remediation in bipolar disorder: a multicenter randomized controlled study. Am. J. Psychiatry 170:8 (2013), 852–859.
85. Torres, I.J., Boudreau, V.G., Yatham, L.N., Neuropsychological functioning in euthymic bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr. Scand.(Suppl 116), 2007, 17–26.
86. Tyler, L.K., Moss, H.E., Towards a distributed account of conceptual knowledge. Trends Cogn. Sci. 5 (2001), 244–252.
87. Watson, S., Gallagher, P., Porter, R.J., Smith, M.S., Herron, L.J., Bulmer, S., Young, A.H., Ferrier, I.N., A randomized trial to examine the effect of mifepristone on neuropsychological performance and mood in patients with bipolar depression. Biol. Psychiatry 72 (2012), 943–949.
88. Xu, G., Lin, K., Rao, D., Dang, Y., Ouyang, H., Guo, Y., Ma, J., Chen, J., Neuropsychological performance in bipolar I, bipolar II and unipolar depression patients: a longitudinal, naturalistic study. J. Affect. Disord. 136 (2012), 328–339.
89. Yatham, L.N., Torres, I.J., Malhi, G.S., Frangou, S., Glahn, D.C., Bearden, C.E., Burdick, K.E., Martinez-Aran, A., Dittmann, S., Goldberg, J.F., Ozerdem, A., Aydemir, O., Chengappa, K.N.R., The international society for bipolar disorders-battery for assessment of neurocognition (ISBD-BANC). Bipolar Disord. 12 (2010), 351–363.
90. Yoshimura, Y., Okamoto, Y., Onoda, K., Okada, G., Toki, S., Yoshino, A., Yamashita, H., Yamawaki, S., Psychosocial functioning is correlated with activation in the anterior cingulate cortex and left lateral prefrontal cortex during a verbal fluency task in euthymic bipolar disorder: a preliminary fMRI study. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 68 (2014), 188–196.
91. Young, A.H., Gallagher, P., Watson, S., Del-Estal, D., Owen, B.M., Ferrier, I.N., Improvements in neurocognitive function and mood following adjunctive treatment with mifepristone (RU-486) in bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 29 (2004), 1538–1545.
92. Young, R.C., Biggs, J.T., Ziegler, V.E., Meyer, D.A., A rating scale for mania: reliability, validity and sensitivity. Br. J. Psychiatry 133:5 (1978), 429–435.
93. Zilkens, R.R., Bruce, D.G., Duke, J., Spilsbury, K., Semmens, J.B., Severe psychiatric disorders in mid-life and risk of dementia in late-life (age 65-84 years): a population based case-control study. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 11 (2014), 681–693.
94. Zubieta, J., Huguelet, P., O'Neil, R., Giordani, B., Cognitive function in euthymic bipolar I disorder. Psychiatry Res. 102 (2001), 9–20.