Colorectal cancer in the young, many questions, few answers

World Journal of Gastrointestinal Oncology

Volumn 8, Issue 6, 2016, Pages 481-488

  Kemal I, Deen ^a   Silva, Hiroshi ^b   Deen, Raeed ^c   Chandrasinghe, Pramodh C ^b  

^a Asiri Centre for Genomic and Regenerative Medicine   (Sri Lanka)

^b UNIVERSITY OF KELANIYA   (Sri Lanka)

^c UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Colon cancer; Colorectal cancer; Early onset; Rectal cancer; Survival; Young age; Young patients

Indexed keywords

EID: 84987635167     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19485204     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4251/wjgo.v8.i6.481     Document Type: Article

References (73)

1. 1 Ferlay J, Shin HR, Bray F, Forman D, Mathers C, Parkin DM. Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008: GLOBOCAN 2008. Int J Cancer 2010; 127: 2893-2917 [PMID: 21351269 DOI:10.1002/ijc.25516]
2. 2 American Cancer Society. Global Cancer Facts and Figures. 2nd ed. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, 2011
3. 3 Siegel R, Ward E, Brawley O, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2011: the impact of eliminating socioeconomic and racial disparities on premature cancer deaths. CA Cancer J Clin 2011; 61: 212-236 [PMID: 21685461 DOI: 10.3322/caac.20121]
4. 4 Vogelstein B, Fearon ER, Hamilton SR, Kern SE, Preisinger AC, Leppert M, Nakamura Y, White R, Smits AM, Bos JL. Genetic alterations during colorectal-tumor development. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 525-532 [PMID: 2841597 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM198809013190901]
5. 5 Scholefield JH, Moss S, Sufi F, Mangham CM, Hardcastle JD. Effect of faecal occult blood screening on mortality from colorectal cancer: results from a randomised controlled trial. Gut 2002; 50:840-844 [PMID: 12010887 DOI: 10.1136/gut.50.6.840]
6. 6 Bond JH. Fecal occult blood test screening for colorectal cancer. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 2002; 12: 11-21 [PMID: 11916154]
7. 7 Abou-Zeid AA, Khafagy W, Marzouk DM, Alaa A, Mostafa I, Ela MA. Colorectal cancer in Egypt. Dis Colon Rectum 2002; 45:1255-1260 [PMID: 12352245 DOI: 10.1007/s10350-004-6401-z]
8. 8 Alici S, Aykan NF, Sakar B, Bulutlar G, Kaytan E, Topuz E. Colorectal cancer in young patients: characteristics and outcome. Tohoku J Exp Med 2003; 199: 85-93 [PMID: 12705353 DOI:10.1620/tjem.199.85]
9. 9 Gupta S, Bhattacharya D, Acharya AN, Majumdar S, Ranjan P, Das S. Colorectal carcinoma in young adults: a retrospective study on Indian patients: 2000-2008. Colorectal Dis 2010; 12: e182-e189 [PMID: 20128837 DOI: 10.1111/j.1463-1318.2010.02223.x]
10. 10 Singh Y, Vaidya P, Hemandas AK, Singh KP, Khakurel M. Colorectal carcinoma in Nepalese young adults: presentation and outcome. Gan To Kagaku Ryoho 2002; 29 Suppl 1: 223-229 [PMID:11890110]
11. 11 Isbister WH. Colorectal cancer Below Age 40 in The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Aust N Z J Surg 1992; 62: 468-472 [PMID: 1590715 DOI: 10.1111/j.1445-2197.1992.tb07227.x]
12. 12 de Silva MV, Fernando MS, Fernando D. Comparison of some clinical and histological features of colorectal carcinoma occurring in patients below and above 40 years. Ceylon Med J 2000; 45:166-168 [PMID: 11293963 DOI: 10.4038/cmj.v45i4.6722]
13. 13 Amini AQ, Samo KA, Memon AS. Colorectal cancer in younger population: our experience. J Pak Med Assoc 2013; 63: 1275-1277 [PMID: 24392559]
14. 14 Han-Shiang C. Curative resection of colorectal adenocarcinoma: multivariate analysis of 5-year follow-up. World J Surg 1999; 23: 1301-1306 [PMID: 10552125 DOI: 10.1007/s002689900666]
15. 15 Adloff M, Arnaud JP, Schloegel M, Thibaud D, Bergamaschi R. Colorectal cancer in patients under 40 years of age. Dis Colon Rectum 1986; 29: 322-325 [PMID: 3009108 DOI: 10.1007/BF02554121]
16. 16 Keating J, Yong D, Cutler G, Johnston J. Multidisciplinary treatment of colorectal cancer in New Zealand: survival rates from 1997-2002. N Z Med J 2006; 119: U2238 [PMID: 16998579]
17. 17 Young JP, Win AK, Rosty C, Flight I, Roder D, Young GP, Frank O, Suthers GK, Hewett PJ, Ruszkiewicz A, Hauben E, Adelstein BA, Parry S, Townsend A, Hardingham JE, Price TJ. Rising incidence of early-onset colorectal cancer in Australia over two decades: report and review. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2015; 30: 6-13 [PMID:25251195 DOI: 10.1111/jgh.12792]
18. 18 Steliarova-Foucher E, Stiller C, Kaatsch P, Berrino F, Coebergh JW, Lacour B, Parkin M. Geographical patterns and time trends of cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents in Europe since the 1970s (the ACCISproject): an epidemiological study. Lancet 2004; 364: 2097-2105 [PMID: 15589307 DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17550-8]
19. 19 Bailey CE, Hu CY, You YN, Bednarski BK, Rodriguez-Bigas MA, Skibber JM, Cantor SB, Chang GJ. Increasing disparities in the age-related incidences of colon and rectal cancers in the United States, 1975-2010. JAMA Surg 2015; 150: 17-22 [PMID: 25372703 DOI: 10.1001/jamasurg.2014.1756]
20. 20 Merrill RM, Anderson AE. Risk-adjusted colon and rectal cancer incidence rates in the United States. Dis Colon Rectum 2011; 54: 1301-1306 [PMID: 21904146 DOI: 10.1097/DCR.0b013e3182242bd3]
21. 21 O’Connell JB, Maggard MA, Liu JH, Etzioni DA, Livingston EH, Ko CY. Rates of colon and rectal cancers are increasing in young adults. Am Surg 2003; 69: 866-872 [PMID: 14570365]
22. 22 O’Connell JB, Maggard MA, Livingston EH, Yo CK. Colorectal cancer in the young. Am J Surg 2004; 187: 343-348 [PMID: 15006562 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2003.12.020]
23. 23 Griffin PM, Liff JM, Greenberg RS, Clark WS. Adenocarcinomas of the colon and rectum in persons under 40 years old. A population-based study. Gastroenterology 1991; 100: 1033-1040 [PMID: 2001800]
24. 24 Slattery ML. Diet, lifestyle, and colon cancer. Semin Gastrointest Dis 2000; 11: 142-146 [PMID: 10950460]
25. 25 Fearnhead NS, Britton MP, Bodmer WF. The ABC of APC. Hum Mol Genet 2001; 10: 721-733 [PMID: 11257105 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/10.7.721]
26. 26 Jass JR. Hereditary Non-Polyposis Colorectal Cancer: the rise and fall of a confusing term. World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12:4943-4950 [PMID: 16937488]
27. 27 Lynch HT, Lynch JF. Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (Lynch syndromes I and II): a common genotype linked to oncogenes? Med Hypotheses 1985; 18: 19-28 [PMID: 4069033 DOI: 10.1016/0306-9877(85) 90115-x]
28. 28 Vasen HF, Watson P, Mecklin JP, Lynch HT. New clinical criteria for hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC, Lynch syndrome) proposed by the International Collaborative group on HNPCC. Gastroenterology 1999; 116: 1453-1456 [PMID:10348829 DOI: 10.1016/S0016-5085(99)70510-X]
29. 29 Umar A, Boland CR, Terdiman JP, Syngal S, de la Chapelle A, Rüschoff J, Fishel R, Lindor NM, Burgart LJ, Hamelin R, Hamilton SR, Hiatt RA, Jass J, Lindblom A, Lynch HT, Peltomaki P, Ramsey SD, Rodriguez-Bigas MA, Vasen HF, Hawk ET, Barrett JC, Freedman AN, Srivastava S. Revised Bethesda Guidelines for hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (Lynch syndrome) and microsatellite instability. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004; 96: 261-268 [PMID: 14970275 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djh034]
30. 30 Mork ME, You YN, Ying J, Bannon SA, Lynch PM, Rodriguez-Bigas MA, Vilar E. High Prevalence of Hereditary Cancer Syndromes in Adolescents and Young Adults With Colorectal Cancer. J Clin Oncol 2015; 33: 3544-3549 [PMID: 26195711 DOI:10.2015.61.4503]
31. 31 Leff DR, Chen A, Roberts D, Grant K, Western C, Windsor AC, Cohen CR. Colorectal cancer in the young patient. Am Surg 2007; 73: 42-47 [PMID: 17249455]
32. 32 Kumar RR, King J, Holt A, Huynh R, Mittal R, Deen R, Kim J. Prevalence of left-sided colorectal cancer and benefit of flexible sigmoidoscopy: a county hospital experience. Am Surg 2007; 73:994-997 [PMID: 17983066]
33. 33 Dozois EJ, Boardman LA, Suwanthanma W, Limburg PJ, Cima RR, Bakken JL, Vierkant RA, Aakre JA, Larson DW. Young-onset colorectal cancer in patients with no known genetic predisposition: can we increase early recognition and improve outcome? Medicine (Baltimore) 2008; 87: 259-263 [PMID: 18794708 DOI: 10.1097/MD.0b013e3181881354]
34. 34 Taggarshe D, Rehil N, Sharma S, Flynn JC, Damadi A. Colorectal cancer: are the “young” being overlooked? Am J Surg 2013;205: 312-316; discussion 316 [PMID: 23414955 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2012.10.016]
35. 35 Lynch HT, Lynch PM, Lanspa SJ, Snyder CL, Lynch JF, Boland CR. Review of the Lynch syndrome: history, molecular genetics, screening, differential diagnosis, and medicolegal ramifications. Clin Genet 2009; 76: 1-18 [PMID: 19659756 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0004.2009.01230.x]
36. 36 da Silva FC, de Oliveira LP, Santos EM, Nakagawa WT, Aguiar Junior S, Valentin MD, Rossi BM, de Oliveira Ferreira F. Frequency of extracolonic tumors in Brazilian families with Lynch syndrome: analysis of a hereditary colorectal cancer institutional registry. Fam Cancer 2010; 9: 563-570 [PMID: 20697958 DOI: 10.1007/s10689-010-9373-2]
37. 37 Ahnen DJ, Wade SW, Jones WF, Sifri R, Mendoza Silveiras J, Greenamyer J, Guiffre S, Axilbund J, Spiegel A, You YN. The increasing incidence of young-onset colorectal cancer: a call to action. Mayo Clin Proc 2014; 89: 216-224 [PMID: 24393412 DOI: 10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.09.006]
38. 38 You YN, Xing Y, Feig BW, Chang GJ, Cormier JN. Youngonset colorectal cancer: is it time to pay attention? Arch Intern Med 2012; 172: 287-289 [PMID: 22157065 DOI: 10.1001/archinternmed.2011.602.]
39. 39 Zahir MN, Azhar EM, Rafiq S, Ghias K, Shabbir-Moosajee M. Clinical features and outcome of sporadic colorectal carcinoma in young patients: a cross-sectional analysis from a developing country. ISRN Oncol 2014; 2014: 461570 [PMID: 25006505 DOI:10.1155/2014/461570]
40. 40 Hamilton SR, Aaltonen LA. Pathology and genetics of tumours of the digestive system. Lyon: IARC press, 2000: 103-126
41. 41 Fu JF, Huang YQ, Yang J, Yi CH, Chen HL, Zheng S. Clinical characteristics and prognosis of young patients with colorectal cancer in Eastern China. World J Gastroenterol 2013; 19:8078-8084 [PMID: 24307803 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v19.i44.8078]
42. 42 Domergue J, Ismail M, Astre C, Saint-Aubert B, Joyeux H, Solassol C, Pujol H. Colorectal carcinoma in patients younger than 40 years of age. Montpellier Cancer Institute experience with 78 patients. Cancer 1988; 61: 835-840 [PMID: 3338041]
43. 43 Armaghany T, Wilson JD, Chu Q, Mills G. Genetic alterations in colorectal cancer. Gastrointest Cancer Res 2012; 5: 19-27 [PMID:22574233]
44. 44 Stigliano V, Sanchez-Mete L, Martayan A, Anti M. Earlyonset colorectal cancer: a sporadic or inherited disease? World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20: 12420-12430 [PMID: 25253942 DOI:10.3748/wjg.v20.i35.12420]
45. 45 Taylor DP, Burt RW, Williams MS, Haug PJ, Cannon-Albright LA. Population-based family history-specific risks for colorectal cancer: a constellation approach. Gastroenterology 2010; 138: 877-885 [PMID: 19932107 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2009.11.044]
46. 46 Stoffel EM. Colorectal Cancer in Young Individuals: Opportunities for Prevention. J Clin Oncol 2015; 33: 3525-3527 [PMID: 26371141 DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2015.61.4503]
47. 47 Frampton GM, Fichtenholtz A, Otto GA, Wang K, Downing SR, He J, Schnall-Levin M, White J, Sanford EM, An P, Sun J, Juhn F, Brennan K, Iwanik K, Maillet A, Buell J, White E, Zhao M, Balasubramanian S, Terzic S, Richards T, Banning V, Garcia L, Mahoney K, Zwirko Z, Donahue A, Beltran H, Mosquera JM, Rubin MA, Dogan S, Hedvat CV, Berger MF, Pusztai L, Lechner M, Boshoff C, Jarosz M, Vietz C, Parker A, Miller VA, Ross JS, Curran J, Cronin MT, Stephens PJ, Lipson D, Yelensky R. Development and validation of a clinical cancer genomic profiling test based on massively parallel DNA sequencing. Nat Biotechnol 2013; 31: 1023-1031 [PMID: 24142049 DOI: 10.1038/nbt.2696]
48. 48 Fang JY, Richardson BC. The MAPK signaling pathways and colorectal cancer. Lancet Oncol 2005; 6: 322- 327 [PMID:15863380]
49. 49 Weinberg RA. The Biology of Cancer. Baltimore, MD: Garland Science, 2006
50. 50 Grady WM, Pritchard CC. Molecular alterations and biomarkers in colorectal cancer. Toxicol Pathol 2014; 42: 124-139 [PMID:24178577 DOI: 10.1177/0192623313505155]
51. 51 Lengauer C, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B. Genetic instabilities in human cancers. Nature 1998; 396: 643-649 [PMID: 9872311]
52. 52 Powell SM, Zilz N, Beazer-Barclay Y, Bryan TM, Hamilton SR, Thibodeau SN, Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW. APC mutations occur early during colorectal tumorigenesis. Nature 1992; 359: 235-237[PMID: 1528264]
53. 53 Tan C, Du X. KRAS mutation testing in metastatic colorectal cancer. World J Gastroenterol 2012; 18: 5171-5180 [PMID:23066310 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v18.i37.5171]
54. 54 Bardhan K, Liu K. Epigenetics and colorectal cancer pathogenesis. Cancers (Basel) 2013; 5: 676-713 [PMID: 24216997 DOI: 10.3390/cancers5020676]
55. 55 Geiersbach KB, Samowitz WS. Microsatellite instability and colorectal cancer. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2011; 135: 1269-1277 [PMID: 21970482 DOI: 10.5858/arpa.2011-0035-RA]
56. 56 Iacopetta B, Li WQ, Grieu F, Ruszkiewicz A, Kawakami K. BRAF mutation and gene methylation frequencies of colorectal tumours with microsatellite instability increase markedly with patient age. Gut 2006; 55: 1213-1214 [PMID: 16849360 DOI:10.1136/gut.2006.095455]
57. 57 Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B. Landscaping the cancer terrain. Science 1998; 280: 1036-1037 [PMID: 9616081]
58. 58 Raskov H, Pommergaard HC, Burcharth J, Rosenberg J. Colorectal carcinogenesis-update and perspectives. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20: 18151-18164 [PMID: 25561783 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i48.18151]
59. 59 Newmark HL, Lupton JR. Determinants and consequences of colonic luminal pH: implications for colon cancer. Nutr Cancer 1990; 14: 161-173 [PMID: 1964727 DOI: 10.1080/01635589009514091]
60. 60 Aune D, Chan DS, Lau R, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, Norat T. Dietary fibre, whole grains, and risk of colorectal cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. BMJ 2011; 343: d6617 [PMID: 22074852 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.d6617]
61. 61 McKay A, Donaleshen J, Helewa RM, Park J, Wirtzfeld D, Hochman D, Singh H, Turner D. Does young age influence the prognosis of colorectal cancer: a population-based analysis. World J Surg Oncol 2014; 12: 370 [PMID: 25466394 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7819-12-370]
62. 62 Schellerer VS, Merkel S, Schumann SC, Schlabrakowski A, Förtsch T, Schildberg C, Hohenberger W, Croner RS. Despite aggressive histopathology survival is not impaired in young patients with colorectal cancer: CRC in patients under 50 years of age. Int J Colorectal Dis 2012; 27: 71-79 [PMID: 21881876 DOI:10.1007/s00384-011-1291-8]
63. 63 Park HC, Shin A, Kim BW, Jung KW, Won YJ, Oh JH, Jeong SY, Yu CS, Lee BH. Data on the characteristics and the survival of korean patients with colorectal cancer from the Korea central cancer registry. Ann Coloproctol 2013; 29: 144-149 [PMID:24032114 DOI: 10.3393/ac.2013.29.4.144]
64. 64 Ruiz R, Taxa L, Casanova L, Ruiz E, Montenegro P. Clinicopathologic features and survival outcomes of colorectal cancer in young patients: Experience from a cancer institute in Peru. Ann Oncol 2015; 26: 70-71 [DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdv233.240]
65. 65 Wang MJ, Ping J, Li Y, Adell G, Arbman G, Nodin B, Meng WJ, Zhang H, Yu YY, Wang C, Yang L, Zhou ZG, Sun XF. The prognostic factors and multiple biomarkers in young patients with colorectal cancer. Sci Rep 2015; 5: 10645 [PMID: 26013439 DOI:10.1038/srep10645]
66. 66 Chan KK, Dassanayake B, Deen R, Wickramarachchi RE, Kumarage SK, Samita S, Deen KI. Young patients with colorectal cancer have poor survival in the first twenty months after operation and predictable survival in the medium and long-term: analysis of survival and prognostic markers. World J Surg Oncol 2010; 8: 82 [PMID: 20840793 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7819-8-82]
67. 67 Geiger TM, Ricciardi R. Screening options and recommendations for colorectal cancer. Clin Colon Rectal Surg 2009; 22: 209-217 [PMID: 21037811 DOI: 10.1055/s-0029-1242460]
68. 68 Levin B, Lieberman DA, McFarland B, Smith RA, Brooks D, Andrews KS, Dash C, Giardiello FM, Glick S, Levin TR, Pickhardt P, Rex DK, Thorson A, Winawer SJ. Screening and surveillance for the early detection of colorectal cancer and adenomatous polyps, 2008: a joint guideline from the American Cancer Society, the US Multi-Society Task Force on Colorectal Cancer, and the American College of Radiology. CA Cancer J Clin 2008; 58: 130-160 [PMID:18322143 DOI: 10.3322/CA.2007.0018]
69. 69 Geller AC, Prout MN, Miller DR, Siegel B, Sun T, Ockene J, Koh HK. Evaluation of a cancer prevention and detection curriculum for medical students. Prev Med 2002; 35: 78-86 [PMID: 12079444 DOI: 10.1006/pmed.2002.1044]
70. 70 Al-Naggar RA, Bobryshev YV. Knowledge of colorectal cancer screening among young Malaysians. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2013; 14: 1969-1974 [PMID: 23679301 DOI: 10.7314/APJCP.2013.14.3.1969]
71. 71 Liu G, Perkins A. Using a lay cancer screening navigator to increase colorectal cancer screening rates. J Am Board Fam Med 2015; 28: 280-282 [PMID: 25748770 DOI: 10.3122/jabfm.2015.02.140209]
72. 72 Osborne JM, Wilson C, Moore V, Gregory T, Flight I, Young GP. Sample preference for colorectal cancer screening tests: Blood or stool? Open J Preventat Med 2012; 2: 326-331 [DOI: 10.4236/ ojpm.2012.23047]
73. 73 Church TR, Wandell M, Lofton-Day C, Mongin SJ, Burger M, Payne SR, Castaños-Vélez E, Blumenstein BA, Rösch T, Osborn N, Snover D, Day RW, Ransohoff DF. Prospective evaluation of methylated SEPT9 in plasma for detection of asymptomatic colorectal cancer. Gut 2014; 63: 317-325 [PMID: 23408352 DOI:10.1136/gutjnl-2012-304149]