Understanding Vulnerability and Resilience from a Normative Developmental Perspective: Implications for Racially and Ethnically Diverse Youth

Developmental Psychopathology: Second Edition

Volumn 1, Issue , 2015, Pages 627-672

  Beale Spencer, Margaret ^a   Harpalani, Vinay ^a   Cassidy, Elaine ^b   Jacobs, Cleopatra Y ^a   Donde, Sapana ^c   Goss, Tyhesha N ^a   Muñoz Miller, Michèle ^a   Charles, Nicole ^d   Wilson, Shaunqula ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^b ROBERT WOOD JOHNSON FOUNDATION   (United States)

^c GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d Germantown Academy   (United States)

Author keywords

Ethnically diverse youth; Human development; Phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory; Racial identity theories; Racially diverse youth; Resilience; Skin color biases; Symbolic interactionism; Vulnerability

Indexed keywords

EID: 84986537178     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470939383.ch16     Document Type: Chapter

References (239)

1. Altabe, M. (1996). Ethnicity and body image: Quantitative and qualitative analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23(2), 153-159.
2. Ambert, A. M. (1997). Parents, children and adolescents: Interactive relationships and development in context. New York: Haworth Press.
3. Anderson, C., & Cromwell, R. (1977). "Black is beautiful" and the color preferences of Afro-American youth. Journal of Negro Education, 46(1), 76-88.
4. Anderson, S., & Messick, S. (1973, March). Social competency in young children (C Report, OCD Grant # H-2993 A /H). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
5. Anthony, E. J. (1974). Introduction: The syndrome of the psychologically vulnerable child. In E. J. Anthony & C. Koupernik (Eds.), The child in his family: Children at psychiatric risk (pp. 103-148). New York: Wiley.
6. Arrington, E. G. (2002). Negotiating race and racism: Black youth in racially dissonant schools. Dissertation Abstracts International, 62, 11B (UMI No. AA13031636).
7. Baldwin, J. A. (1979). Theory and research concerning the notion of Black self-hatred: A review and reinterpretation. Journal of Black Psychology, 5, 51-77.
8. Bandura, A. (1978). The self system in reciprocal determinism. American Psychologist, 33, 344-358.
9. Banks, W. C. (1976). White preference in Blacks: A paradigm in search of phenomenon. Psychological Bulletin, 83, 1179-1186.
10. Beteille, A. (Ed.). (1965). Caste, Class and Power: Changing Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore Village. Berkeley: University of California Press.
11. Beteille, A. (Ed.). (1969). Caste: Old and new. Bombay: Asia Publishing House.
12. Beteille, A. (1972). Inequality and social change. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
13. Beteille, A. (1981). The backward classes and the new social order. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
14. Beteille, A. (1983). The idea of natural inequality and other essays. Delhi, India: Oxford University Press.
15. Blackwell, J. E. (1985). The Black community: Diversity and unity. New York: Dodd, Mead.
16. Bond, S., & Cash, T. (1992). Black beauty: Skin color and body images among African American college women. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22(11), 874-888.
17. Bonilla-Silva, E. (1997). Rethinking racism: Toward a structural interpretation. American Sociological Review, 62, 465-480.
18. Bonilla-Silva, E. (2001). White supremacy and racism in the postcivil rights era. Boulder, CO: Lynne Riener.
19. Boyd-Franklin, N. (1989). Black families in therapy: A multisystems approach. New York: Guilford Press.
20. Boykin, A. W. (1986). The triple quandary and the schooling of Afro-American children. In U. Neisser (Ed.), Achievement of minority children (pp. 57-92). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
21. Brand, E. S., Ruiz, R. A., & Padilla, A. M. (1974). Ethnic identification and preference: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 860-890.
22. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32, 513-530.
23. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
24. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development (pp. 187-248). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
25. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1993). The ecology of cognitive development. In R. H. Wozniak & K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Development in context: Acting and thinking in specific environments (pp. 3-44). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
26. Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J. (1994). Nature-nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101, 568-586.
27. Bronfenbrenner, U., & Crouter, A. C. (1983). The evolution of environmental models in developmental research. In P. H. Mussen (Series Ed.) & W. Kessen (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. History, theory and methods (pp. 357-414). New York: Wiley.
28. Broughton, J. (1981). The divided self in adolescence. Human Development, 24, 13-32.
29. Brown, J. S., & Farber, I. E. (1968). Secondary motivational systems. In P. R. Farnsworth (Ed.), Annual review of psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 99-134). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.
30. Camarota, S. (2001). Immigrants in the United States-2000. Retrieved from the Center for Immigration Studies, http//www.cis .org/articles/2001/back101.html.
31. Chestang, L. W. (1972a). Character development in a hostile environment (Occasional Paper No. 3). University of Chicago, School of Social Service Administration.
32. Chestang, L. W. (1972b), The dilemma of biracial adoptions. Social Work, 17, 100-105.
33. Churchill, W. (1994). Indians are us? Culture and genocide in native North America. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press.
34. Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1939). The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of racial identity in Negro preschool children. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 591-599.
35. Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1940). Skin color as a factor in racial identification of Negro preschool children. Journal of Social Psychology, 2, 159-169.
36. Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1947). Racial identification and preferences in Negro children. In T. M. Bewcomb & E. L. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in social psychology (pp. 169 -178). New York: Holt.
37. Coard, S., Breland, A.,&Raskin, P. (2001). Perceptions of and preferences for skin color, Black racial identity, and self-esteem among African Americans. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(11), 2256-2274.
38. Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
39. Conley, D. (1999). Being Black, living in the red. Berkeley: University of California Press.
40. Connell, J. P., Spencer, M. B., & Aber, J. L. (1994). Educational risk and resilience in African American youth: Context, self, action and outcomes in school. Child Development, 65, 493-506.
41. Cook, J. L., & Cook, G. (2005). Child development: Principles and perspectives. Boston: Pearson Education.
42. Cooley, C. H. (1902). Human nature and the social order. New York: Charles Scribner & Sons.
43. Corrigan, P. W., & Penn, D. L. (1999). Lessons from social psychology on discrediting psychiatric stigma. American Psychologist, 54, 765-776.
44. Cross, W. E., Jr. (1971). Negro-to-Black conversion experience. Black World, 20, 13-27.
45. Cross, W. E., Jr. (1979). Negro to Black conversion experience. Black World, 20, 13-27.
46. Cross, W. E., Jr. (1991). Shades of black: Diversity in African American identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
47. Cross, W. E., Jr. (2003). Tracing the historical origins of youth delinquency and violence: Myths and realities about Black culture. Journal of Negro Education, 59(1), 67-82.
48. Cross, W. E., Jr., Parham, T. A., & J. E. Helms. (1991). Nigrescence revisited: Theory and research. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Advances in Black psychology. Los Angeles: Cobb and Henry.
49. Cunningham, M. (1999). African American adolescent males' perceptions of their community resources and constraints: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 569-588.
50. Dannefer, D. (1992). On the conceptualization of context in developmental discourse. In D. L. Featherman, R. M. Featherman, & M. Perlmutter (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (pp. 83-110). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
51. Darity, W. A., Jr., Myers, S. L. Jr. (1998). Persistent disparity: Race and economic inequality in the United States since 1945. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.
52. deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation: The internal af fective determinant of behavior. New York: Academy Press.
53. Donde, S. (2001). PVEST application to immigrants from collectivist societies living in the U.S.: Special focus on South Asian Americans. Unpublished manuscript, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
54. Donzinger, S. (Ed.). 1996.The realwaroncrime. NewYork:HarperPerennial.
55. DuBois, W. E. B. (1903). Souls of Blackfolk. Chicago: A.C. McClurg.
56. DuRant, R. H., Cadenheard, C., & Pendergrast, R. A. (1994). Factors associated with the use of violence among urban Black adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 612-617.
57. Edwards, O. (1973). Skin color as a variable in racial attitudes of Black urbanites. Journal of Black Studies, 3(4), 473-483.
58. Eng, P. (1999). Warrior lessons. New York: Pocket Books.
59. Epps, E. G. (1985). Preface. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. R. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and af fective development of Black children. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
60. Epstein, S. (1973). The self-concept revisited, or a theory of a theory. American Psychologist, 28, 405-416.
61. Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. Psychological Issues, 1, 1-171.
62. Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
63. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
64. Fegley, S. G., Spencer, M. B., Goss, T. N., Harpalani, V., & Charles, N. (in press). Bodily self-awareness: Skin color and psychosocial wellbeing in adolescence. In W. Overton & U. Mueller (Eds.), Body in mind, mind in body: Developmental perspectives on embodiment and consciousness. Mahwah, NJ: LEA.
65. Ferguson, A. A. (2001). Bad boys: Public schools and the making of Black masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
66. Fisher, C. B., Jackson, J. F., & Villarruel, F. A. (1998). The study of African American and Latin American children and youth. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (pp. 1145-1207). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
67. Flavell, J. (1968). The development of social cognition and communication skills in children. New York: Wiley.
68. Foote, N., & Cottrell, L. S. (1955). Identity and interpersonal competence: A new direction in family research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
69. Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. U. (1986). Black students' school success: Coping with the "burden of 'acting White.' " Urban Review, 18, 176-206.
70. Franklin, J. H. (1968). Color and race. Boston, MA: Houghton-Miffin.
71. Franklin, J. H. (1994). Color line: Legacy for the twenty-first century. Columbia: University of Missouri Press.
72. Franklin, J. H., & Moss, A. (1994). From slavery to freedom: A history of African Americans (7th ed.). New York: Random House.
73. Frazier, E. E. (1957). Black bourgeoisie. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
74. Frye, D., & Moore, C. (1991). Children's theories of mind: Mental states and social understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
75. Fuchs, E., & Havighurst, R. J. (1972). To live on this earth. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
76. Gallay, L., & Flanagan, C. A. (2000). The well-being of children in a changing economy: Time for a new social contract in America. In R. D. Taylor and M. C. Wang (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Family, work, culture, and community (pp. 3-34). Mahwah, NJ: LEA.
77. Garcia Coll, C., Akerman, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). Cultural inf luences on developmental processes and outcomes: Implications for the study of development and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 333-356.
78. Garcia Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H. P., Crnic, K., Wasik, B. H., et al. (1996). An integrative model for the study of de velopmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67, 1891-1914.
79. Garmezy, N. (1985). Stress resistant children: The search for protective factors. In J. E. Stevenson (Ed.), Recent research in developmental psychopathology (pp. 213-233). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
80. Gilbert, A. (1989). Things fall apart? Psychological theory in the context of rapid social change. South African Journal of Psychology, 19(2), 91-100.
81. Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
82. Gonzales, J. (2000). Harvest of empire: A history of Latinos in America. New York: Viking Press.
83. Good, R. (2003, February 9). Questions for Randall Kennedy: Color dynamics. New York Times, 19.
84. Gopaul-McNicol, S. (1988). Racial identification and racial preference of Black preschool children in New York and Trinidad. Journal of Black Psychology, 14, 65-68.
85. Haney-Lopez, I. F. (1996). White by law: The legal construction of race. New York: New York University Press.
86. Harber, K. D. (1998). Feedback to minorities: Evidence of a positive bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 622-628.
87. Harker, K. (2001). Immigrant generation, assimilation, and adolescent psychological well-being. Social Forces, 79, 969-1004.
88. Harpalani, V. (2001, April). Racial stereotyping and Black athletic achievement: Developmental and ethical considerations. Presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD), Minneapolis, MN.
89. Harpalani, V. (2002). What does "acting White" really mean? Racial identity formation and academic achievement among Black youth. Penn GSE Perspectives on Urban Education, 1. Retrieved December 7, 2002, from http://www.urbanedjournal.org/commentaries/c0001.html.
90. Harpalani, V. (2004). Simple justice or complex injustice? American racial dynamics and the ironies of Brown and Grutter. Penn GSE Perspectives on Urban Education, 3(1). Available from www.urbanedjournal.org.
91. Harris, C. I. (1993). Whiteness as property. Harvard Law Review, 106, 1709-1795.
92. Hart, D. (1988). A philosophical dilemma approach to adolescent identity. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34, 105-114.
93. Havighurst, R.J. (1953). Human development and education. New York: McKay.
94. Helms, J. E. (Ed.). (1990). Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Greenwood Press.
95. Hernandez, D. (1998). From generation to generation: The health and well-being of children in immigrant families. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
96. Hoberman, J. M. (1997). Darwin's athletes: How sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race. Boston: Houghton Miff lin.
97. Hughes, M., & Hertel, B. R. (1990). The significance of color remains: A study of life chances, mate selection, and ethnic consciousness among African Americans. Social Forces, 68, 1105-1120.
98. Hunter, M. L. (1998). Colorstruck: Skin color stratification in the lives of African American women. Sociological Inquiry, 58(4), 517-535.
99. Hunter, M. L. (2004). Light, bright, and almost White: The advantages and disadvantages of light skin. In C. Herring, V. M. Keith, & H. D. Horton (Eds.), Skin deep: How race and complexion matter in the "color-blind" era (pp. 22-44). Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
100. Ignatiev, N. (1995). How the Irish became White. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
101. Ingold, T. (1994). Introduction to culture. In T. Ingold (Ed.), Companion encyclopedia of anthropology: Humanity, culture and social life (pp. 329-349). London: Routledge.
102. Izrael, J. (2001). Skin games: Color and skin tone in the Black community. Available from Africana: Gateway to the Black World, at www .africana.com/articles/daily/index_20010108.asp.
103. James, W. (1961). Psychology: The briefer course. New York: Harper and Brothers. (Original work published 1892).
104. Kagan, J., & Klein, R. E. (1973). Cross-cultural perspectives on early development. American Psychologist, 28, 947-961.
105. Kao, G. (1995). Asian Americans as model minorities? A look at their academic performance. American Journal of Education, 103, 121-159.
106. Kardiner, A., & Ovesey, L. (1951). The mark of oppression: Explorations in the personality of the American Nego. New York: Norton.
107. Kasinitz, P., Battle, J., & Miyares, I. (2001). Fade to Black? The children of West Indian immigrants in southern Florida. In R. Rumbaut & A. Portes (Eds.), Ethnicities: Children of immigrants in America (pp. 267-300). Berkeley: University of California Press.
108. Keith, V., & Herring, C. (1991). Skin tone and stratification in the Black community. American Journal of Sociology, 97, 760-778.
109. Kerwin, C., Ponterotto, J. G., Jackson, B. L., & Harris, A. (1993). Racial identity in biracial children: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 40(2), 221-231.
110. Kochman, T. J. (1992). The relationship between environmental characteristics and the psychological functioning of African American youth. Unpublished honors thesis, Emory University, Atlanta, GA.
111. Koshy, S. (1998). Category crisis: South Asian Americans and questions of race and ethnicity. Diaspora, 7(3), 285-320.
112. Lee, C., Spencer, M. B., & Harpalani, V. (2003). Every shut eye ain't sleep: Studying how people live culturally. Educational Researcher Journal, 32(5), 6-13.
113. Legum, C. (1968). Color and power in the southern African situation. In J. H. Franklin (Ed.), Color and race (pp. 205-217). Boston: Beacon Press.
114. Lewin, K. (1935). A dynamic theory of personality. NewYork:McGraw-Hill.
115. Lipsitz, G. (1998). The possessive investment in Whiteness: How White people profit from identity politics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
116. Luthar, S. S. (2003). Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
117. Luthar, S. S., & Becker, B. E. (2002). Privileged but pressured? A study of aff luent youth. Child Development, 73, 1593-1610.
118. Luthar, S., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). The construct of resilience: Implications for interventions and social policies. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 857-885.
119. Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543-562.
120. Luthar, S. S., & Latendresse, S. J. (2002). Adolescent risk: The cost of aff luence. New Directions for Youth Development, 95, 101-121.
121. Maddox, K. B. (1998). Cognitive representation of light- versus darkskinned Blacks: Structure, content, and use of the African American stereotype. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara.
122. Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551-558.
123. Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 159-187). New York: Wiley.
124. Marks, E. S. (1943). Skin color judgments of Negro college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38, 370-376.
125. Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Cultural variation in the selfconcept. In G. R. Goethals & J. Strauss (Eds.), Multidisciplinary perspectives on the self (pp. 18-48). New York: Springer-Verlag.
126. Masten, A. S. (1994). Resilience in individual development: Successful adaptation despite risk and adversity. In M. C. Wang & E. W. Gordon (Eds.), Educational resilience in inner-city America: Challenges and prospects (pp. 3-25). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
127. May, D. (2001). Adolescent fear of crime, perceptions of risk, and defensive behaviors: An alternative explanation of violent delinquency. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellon Press.
128. Mayer, S. E., & Jencks, C. (1989). Growing up in poor neighborhoods: How much does it matter? Science, 243, 1441-1445.
129. McAdoo, H. P. (1985). Racial attitude and self-concept of young Black children over time. In H. P. McAdoo & J. L. McAdoo (Eds.), Black children: Social, educational, and parental environments (pp. 213-242). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
130. McIntosh, P. (1989). White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. Peace and Freedom, 10-12.
131. McIntosh, P. (1990). White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. Independent School, 49(2). (Excerpted from White privilege and male privilege: A personal account of coming to see correspondences through work in women's studies, Working Paper 189, 1988).
132. Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
133. Mehta, P. (1998). The emergence, conflicts, and integration of the bicultural self. In S. Akhtar & S. Kramer (Eds.), The colors of childhood (pp. 129-168). Northvale, NJ: Aronson.
134. Mitchell, S. A. (1988). Relational concepts in psychoanalysis: An integration. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
135. Montalvo, F., & Codina, G. E. (2001). Skin color and Latinos in the United States. Ethnicities, 1(3), 321-341.
136. Ogbu, J. U. (1978). Minority education and caste: The American system in cross-cultural perspective. New York: Academic Press.
137. Ogbu, J. U. (1985). A cultural ecology of competence among inner-city Blacks. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. R. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and af fective development of Black children (pp. 45-66). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
138. Ogbu, J. U. (1990). Minority education in a comparative perspective. Journal of Negro Education, 59(1), 45-56.
139. Omi, M., & Winant, H. (1994). Racial formation in the United States (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
140. Parker, S., Nichter, M., Nichter, M., Vuckovic, N., Sims, C., & Ritenbaugh, C. (1995). Body image and weight concerns among African American and White adolescent females: Differences that make a difference. Human Organization, 54(2), 103-113.
141. Parrish, C. H. (1946). Color names and color notions. Journal of Negro Education, 15, 13-20.
142. Peters, M. F. (1985). Racial socialization of young Black children. In H. P. McAdoo & J. L. McAdoo (Eds.), Black children: Social, educational, and parental environments (pp. 159-173). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
143. Pettigrew, T. F. (1964). A profile of the Negro American. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
144. Phelan, P., Davidson, A. L., & Cao, H. T. (1991). Students' multiple worlds: Negotiating the boundaries of family, peer, and school cultures. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 22, 224-250.
145. Phinney, J. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure: A new scale for use with adolescents and young adults from diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156-176.
146. Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
147. Piaget, J. (1970). Structuralism. New York: Basic Books.
148. Porter, C. (1991). Social reasons for skin tone preferences of Black school-age children. Journal of the American Orthopsychiatric Association, 61, 149-154.
149. Porter, J. D. (1971). Black child, White child: The development of racial attitudes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
150. Portes, A., & Böröcz, J. (1989). Contemporary immigration: Theoretical perspectives on its determinants and modes of incorporation. International Migration Review, 23, 606-630.
151. Portes, A., & MacLeod, D. (1999). Educating the second generation: Determinants of academic achievement among children of immigrants in the United States. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 25, 373-396.
152. Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. G. (2001). Legacies: The story of the immigrant second generation. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
153. Poston, W. S. C. (1990). The biracial identity development model: A needed addition. Journal of Counseling and Development, 69(2), 52-55.
154. Prashad, V. (2000). The karma of Brown folk. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
155. Provenzo, E. F. (1986). An introduction to American education. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
156. Repacholi, B., & Slaughter, V. (2003). Individual dif ferences in theory of mind: Implications for typical and atypical development. [Macquarie monographs in cognitive science.] New York: Psychology Press.
157. Reuter, E. B. (1917). The superiority of the mulatto. American Journal of Sociology, 23, 83-106.
158. Root, M. P. (1990). Resolving "other " status: Identity development of biracial individuals. Women and Therapy, 9(1/2), 185-205.
159. Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books.
160. Rumbaut, R. G. (1994). The crucible within: Ethnic identity, selfesteem, and segmented assimilation among children of immigrants. International Migration Review, 28, 748-794.
161. Rushton, J. P. (1995). Race, evolution, and behavior: A life-history perspective. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
162. Russell, K., Wilson, M., & Hall, R. (1992). The color complex. New York: Doubleday.
163. Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316-331.
164. Sampson, R. J., & Morenoff, J. D. (1997). Ecological perspectives on the neighborhood context of poverty: Past and present. In J. Brooks-Gunn, G. J. Duncan, & J. L. Abers (Eds.), Neighborhood poverty: Vol. II. Policy implications in studying neighborhoods (pp. 1-22). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
165. Scheibe, K. E. (1985). Historical perspectives on the presented self. In B. Schlenker (Ed.), The self and social life (pp. 33-64). New York: McGraw-Hill.
166. Segall, M. H. (1984). More than we need to know about the culture, but are afraid to ask. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 15(2), 153-162.
167. Shakoor, B., & Chalmers, D. (1991). Co-victimization of African American children who witness violence: Effects on cognitive, emotional, and behavioral development. Journal of the National Medical Association, 83, 233-237.
168. Smith, M. B. (1968). Competence and socialization. In J. A. Clausen (Ed.), Socialization and society (pp. 279-320). Boston: Little, Brown.
169. Spencer, M. B. (1977, July). The social-cognitive and personality development of the Black preschool child: An exploratory study of developmental process. Dissertation Abstracts International, 38, 970.
170. Spencer, M. B. (1982a). Personal and group identity of Black children: An alternative synthesis. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 103, 59-84.
171. Spencer, M. B. (1982b). Preschool children's social cognition and cultural cognition: A cognitive developmental interpretation of race dissonance findings. Journal of Psychology, 112, 275-286.
172. Spencer, M. B. (1983). Children's cultural values and parental child rearing strategies. Developmental Review, 3, 351-370.
173. Spencer, M. B. (1984). Black children's race awareness, racial attitudes, and self-concept: A reinterpretation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 25(3), 433-441.
174. Spencer, M. B. (1985). Cultural cognition and social cognition as identity factors in Black children's personal-social growth. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. R. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and af fective development of Black children (pp. 215-230). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
175. Spencer, M. B. (1986). Risk and resilience: How Black children cope with stress. Social Science, 71(1), 22-26.
176. Spencer, M. B. (1987). Black children's ethnic identity formation: Risk and resilience of castelike minorities. In K. S. Phinney & M. J. Rotheram (Eds.), Children's ethnic socialization (pp. 103-116). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
177. Spencer, M. B. (1990). Parental values transmission: Implications for the development of African American children. In J. B. Stewart & H. Cheathan (Eds.), Interdisciplinary perspectives on Black families (pp. 111-130). Atlanta, GA: Transactions.
178. Spencer, M. B. (1995). Old issues and new theorizing about African American youth: A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory. In R. L. Taylor (Ed.), Black youth: Perspectives on their status in the United States (pp. 37-70). Westport, CT: Praeger.
179. Spencer, M. B. (1999). Social and cultural inf luences on school adjustment: The application of an identity-focused cultural ecological perspective. Educational Psychologist, 34, 43-57.
180. Spencer, M. B. (2001). Identity, achievement, orientation, and race: "Lessons learned" about the normative developmental experiences of African American males. In W. H. Watkins, J. H. Lewis, & V. Chou (Eds.), Race and education: The roles of history and society in educating African American students (pp. 100-127). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
181. Spencer, M. B. (in press). Phenomenology and ecological systems theory: Development of diverse groups. In W. Damon & R. Lerner (Eds.), Chapter 15. Handbook of Child Psychology. New York: Wiley.
182. Spencer, M. B., Cole, S. P., Dupree, D., Glymph, A., & Pierre, P. (1993). Self-efficacy among urban African American early adolescents: Exploring issues of risk, vulnerability, and resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 719-739.
183. Spencer, M. B., Cole, S. P., Jones, S., & Swanson, D. P. (1997). Neighborhood and family inf luences on young urban adolescents' behavior problems: A multisample multisite analysis. In J. Brooks-Gunn, G. Duncan, & J. Lawrence Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood poverty: Context and consequences for children (Vol. 1, pp. 200-218). New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press.
184. Spencer, M. B., Cross, Jr., W. E., Harpalani, V., & Goss, T. N. (2003). Debunking the "acting White" myth and posing new directions for research. In C. C. Yeakey & R. D. Henderson (Eds.), Surmounting all odds: Education, opportunity, and society in the new millennium (pp. 273-304). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
185. Spencer, M. B., Cunningham, M., & Swanson, D. P. (1995). Identity as coping: Adolescent African American males' adaptive responses to high risk environments. In H. W. Harris, H. C. Blue, & E. E. H. Griffith (Eds.), Racial and ethnic identity: Psychological development and creative expression (pp. 31-52). New York: Routledge Publishers.
186. Spencer, M. B., & Dornbusch, S. (1990). Challenges in studying minority youth. In S. Feldman & G. Elliot (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 123-146). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
187. Spencer, M. B., & Dupree, D. (1996). African American youths' ecocultural challenges and psychosocial opportunities: An alternative analysis of problem behavior outcomes. In D. Cicchetti & S. Toth (Eds.), Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology: Vol. 7. Adolescence: Opportunities and Challenges (pp. 259-282). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
188. Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., Cunningham, M., Harpalani, V., & Munoz-Miller, M. (2003). Vulnerability to violence: A contextually sensitive, developmental perspective on African American adolescents. Journal of Social Issues, 59, 33-49.
189. Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., & Hartmann, T. (1997). A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 817-833.
190. Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., Swanson, D. P., & Cunningham, M. (1996). Parental monitoring and adolescents' sense of responsibility for their own learning: An examination of sex differences. Journal of Negro Education, 65(1), 30-43.
191. Spencer, M. B., Fegley, S. G., Seaton, G., & Harpalani, V. (in press). Coping in context: A theory-driven analysis of adolescent males' behavioral responses to risk. Research in Human Development.
192. Spencer, M. B., & Harpalani, V. (2001). African American adolescents, research on. In R. M. Lerner & J. V. Lerner (Eds.), Today's teenager: Adolescents in America (pp. 30-32). Denver, CO: ABC-CLIO.
193. Spencer, M. B., & Harpalani, V. (2003). Nature, nurture and the question of "How?": A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory. In C. Garcia-Coll, K. Kearer, & R. Lerner (Eds.), Nature and nurture: The complex interplay of genetic development (pp. 53-77). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
194. Spencer, M. B., Harpalani, V., Fegley, S., Dell'Angelo, T., & Seaton, G. (2003). Identity, self, and peers in context: A culturally sensitive, developmental framework for analysis. In R. M. Lerner, F. Jacobs, & D. Wertlieb (Eds.), Handbook of applied developmental science (pp. 123-142). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
195. Spencer, M. B., & Horowitz, F. D. (1973). Racial attitudes and color concept-attitude modification in Black and Caucasian preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 9, 246-254.
196. Spencer, M. B., Kim, S., & Marshall, S. (1987). Double stratification and psychological risk: Adaptational processes and school experiences of Black children. Journal of Negro Education, 56(1), 77-86.
197. Spencer, M. B., & Markstrom-Adams, C. (1990). Identity processes among racial and ethnic minority children in America. Child Development, 61, 290-310.
198. Spencer, M. B., Noll, E., Stoltzfus, J., & Harpalani, V. (2001). Identity and school adjustment: Revisiting the "acting White" hypothesis. Educational Psychologist, 36(1), 21-30.
199. Spencer, M. B., & Swanson, D. P. (2000). Promoting positive outcomes for youth: Resourceful families and communities. In J. Waldfogel and Danzinger (Eds.), Securing the future (pp. 182-204). New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press.
200. Spurlock, J., & Norris, D. M. (1991). The impact of culture and race on the development of African Americans. In A. Tasman & S. M. Goldfinger (Eds.), American Psychiatric Press review of psychiatry (pp. 594-607). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
201. Steele, C. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.
202. Steele, C. M. (2004, April). Stereotype threat. Endowed lectureship sponsored by the University of Michigan, Provost Office.
203. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.
204. Steinhorn, L., & Diggs-Brown, B. (1999). By the color of our skin: The illusion of integration and the reality of race. New York: Dutton Books.
205. Stevenson, H. C., Jr. (1994). Validation of the Scale of Racial Socialization for Black adolescents: Steps toward multidimensionality. Journal of Black Psychology, 20(4), 445-468.
206. Stevenson, H. C., Jr. (1997). Missed, dissed, and pissed: Making meaning of neighborhood risk, fear and anger management in urban Black youth. Cultural Diversity and Mental Health, 3, 37-52.
207. Stevenson, H. W., & Stewart, E. C. (1958). A developmental study of racial awareness in young children. Child Development, 29, 399-409.
208. Stone, J., Perry, Z. W., & Darley, J. M. (1997). "White men can't jump": Evidence for the perceptual confirmation of racial stereotypes following a basketball game. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 19(3), 291-306.
209. Stonequist, E. V. (1937). The marginal man: A study in personality and culture conf lict. New York: Charles Scribner & Sons.
210. Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.
211. Sullivan, M. L. (1989). Getting paid: Youth, crime and work in the inner city. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
212. Swanson, D. P., Cunningham, M., & Spencer, M. B. (2003). Black males' structural conditions, achievement patterns, normative needs and opportunities. Urban Education Journal, 38, 608-633.
213. Swanson, D. P., & Spencer, M. B. (1991). Youth policy, poverty, and African Americans: Implications for resilience. Education and Urban Society, 24(1), 148-161.
214. Swanson, D. P., & Spencer, M. B. (1998). Developmental and cultural context considerations for research on African American adolescents. In H. E. Fitzgerald, B. M. Lester, & B. Zuckerman (Eds.), Children of color: Research, health, and public policy issues (pp. 53-72). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
215. Swanson, D. P., Spencer, M. B., Dell'Angelo, T., Harpalani, V., & Spencer, T. (2002). Identity processes and the positive youth development of African Americans: An exploratory framework. In G. Noam (Series Ed.) & C. Taylor, R. M. Lenner, & A. von Eye (Vol. Eds.), New Directions for youth development: Vol. 95. Pathways to positive youth development among gang and non-gang youth (pp. 73-99). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
216. Swanson, D. P., Spencer, M. B., Harpalani, V., Dupree, D., Noll, E., Ginzburg, S., et al. (2003). Psychosocial development in racially and ethnically diverse youth: Conceptual and methodological challenges in the twenty-first century. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 743-771.
217. Swanson, D. P., Spencer, M. B., & Petersen, A. (1998). Identity formation in adolescence. In K. Borman & B. Schneider (Eds.), The adolescent years: Social inf luences and educational challenges: Pt. 1. Ninety-seventh yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (pp. 18-41). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
218. Takaki, R. (1998). Strangers from a dif ferent shore: A history of Asian Americans. New York: Little, Brown.
219. Tatum, B. D. (1997). Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria? New York: Basic Books.
220. Taylor, C. (1991). The dialogical self. In D. R. Hiley, J. F. Bohman, & R. Shusterman (Eds.), The interpretive turn: Philosophy, science, culture (pp. 304-314). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
221. Tuakli-Williams, J., & Carillo, J. (1995). The impact of psychosocial stressors on African American and Latino preschoolers. Journal of the National Medical Association, 87(7), 473-478.
222. Tylor, E. B. (1871/1958). Primitive culture. New York: Harper & Row.
223. Vander Zander, J. W. (1985). Human development (3rd ed.). New York: Knopf.
224. Van Oers, B. (1998). From context to contextualizing. Learning and Instruction, 8(6), 473-488.
225. Wagatsuma, H. (1968). The social perception of skin color in Japan. In J. H. Franklin (Ed.), Color and race (pp. 129-165). Boston: Houghton Miff lin.
226. Waters, M. C. (1994). Ethnic and racial identities of second-generation Black immigrants in New York City. International Migration Review, 28,795-820.
227. Waters, M. C. (1996). The intersection of gender, race, and ethnicity in identity development of Caribbean American teens. In B. J. Ross Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban girls: Resisting stereotypes, creating identities (pp. 65-81). New York: New York University Press.
228. Wenner, L. N. (1972). The American Indian and formal education. In W. W. Brichman & S. S. Lehrer (Eds.), Education and the many faces of the disadvantaged (pp. 143-152). New York: Wiley.
229. Werner, E. E. (1989). High risk children in young adulthood: A longitudinal study from birth to 32 years. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59, 72-81.
230. Werner, E. E. (2000). Protective factors and individual resilience. In J. P. Shonkoff & S. J. Meisels (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (2nd ed., pp. 115-132). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
231. Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth. New York: McGraw-Hill.
232. Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (2001). Journeys from childhood to midlife: Risk, resilience, and recovery. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
233. White, R. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66, 297-333.
234. White, R. (1960). Competence and psychosexual development. In M. R. Riley (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (pp. 3-32). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
235. Williams, J. E., & Roberson, J. K. (1967). A method for assessing racial attitudes in preschool children. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 27, 671-689.
236. Youngblood, J., & Spencer, M. B. (2002). Integrating normative identity processes and academic support requirements for special needs adolescents: The application of an identity-focused cultural ecological (ICE) perspective. Journal of Applied Developmental Science, 6, 95-108.
237. Zelizer, V. A. (1994). Pricing the priceless child: The changing social value of children. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
238. Zhou, M. (1997). Growing up American: The challenge confronting immigrant children and children of immigrants. Annual Review of Sociology, 23, 63-95.
239. Zhou, M., & Bankston, C. L. (1998). Growing up American: How Vietnamese children adapt to life in the United States. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.