Parainfluenza Virus Infection

Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 37, Issue 4, 2016, Pages 538-554

  Branche, Angela R ^a   Falsey, Ann R ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b ROCHESTER GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

parainfluenza virus infection

Indexed keywords

ANTIVIRUS AGENT; PARAINFLUENZA VACCINE;

APNEA; ARTICLE; BRADYCARDIA; BRONCHIOLITIS; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; CONJUNCTIVITIS; CROUP; EPIDEMIC; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; HOSPITALIZATION; HOST RESISTANCE; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOCOMPROMISED PATIENT; LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS; LARYNGOTRACHEOBRONCHITIS; LONG TERM CARE; LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION; OTITIS MEDIA; PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS INFECTION; PAROTITIS; PHARYNGITIS; PNEUMONIA; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REINFECTION; RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME; SEASONAL VARIATION; TRACHEOBRONCHITIS; VIROLOGY; ADULT; CHILD; COMPLICATION; HUMAN PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS 1; HUMAN PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS 2; PARAMYXOVIRUS INFECTION; PHYSIOLOGY; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; RESPIROVIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS REPLICATION;

ADULT; CHILD; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMANS; IMMUNOCOMPROMISED HOST; PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS 1, HUMAN; PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS 2, HUMAN; PARAMYXOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS; RESPIROVIRUS INFECTIONS; VIRUS REPLICATION;

EID: 84982711484     PISSN: 10693424     EISSN: 10989048     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-0036-1584798     Document Type: Article

References (207)

1. Glezen W. P., Frank A. L., Taber L. H., Kasel J. A. Parainfluenza virus type 3: seasonality and risk of infection and reinfection in young children. J Infect Dis: 1984; 150 6 851 857
2. Glezen W. P., Loda F. A., Clyde W. A. Jr., et al. Epidemiologic patterns of acute lower respiratory disease of children in a pediatric group practice. J Pediatr: 1971; 78 3 397 406
3. Denny F. W., Murphy T. F., Clyde W. A. Jr, Collier A. M., Henderson F. W. Croup: an 11-year study in a pediatric practice. Pediatrics: 1983; 71 6 871 876
4. Henrickson K. J., Kuhn S. M., Savatski L. L. Epidemiology and cost of infection with human parainfluenza virus types 1 and 2 in young children. Clin Infect Dis: 1994; 18 5 770 779
5. Knott A. M., Long C. E., Hall C. B. Parainfluenza viral infections in pediatric outpatients: seasonal patterns and clinical characteristics. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 1994; 13 4 269 273
6. Marx A., Török T. J., Holman R. C., Clarke M. J., Anderson L. J. Pediatric hospitalizations for croup (laryngotracheobronchitis): biennial increases associated with human parainfluenza virus 1 epidemics. J Infect Dis: 1997; 176 6 1423 1427
7. Lewis V. A., Champlin R., Englund J., et al. Respiratory disease due to parainfluenza virus in adult bone marrow transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis: 1996; 23 5 1033 1037
8. McCann S., Byrne J. L., Rovira M., et al. Infectious Diseases Working Party of the EBMT. Outbreaks of infectious diseases in stem cell transplant units: a silent cause of death for patients and transplant programmes. Bone Marrow Transplant: 2004; 33 5 519 529
9. Wendt C. H., Weisdorf D. J., Jordan M. C., Balfour H. H. Jr, Hertz M. I. Parainfluenza virus respiratory infection after bone marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med: 1992; 326 14 921 926
10. Chemaly R. F., Ghosh S., Bodey G. P., et al. Respiratory viral infections in adults with hematologic malignancies and human stem cell transplantation recipients: a retrospective study at a major cancer center. Medicine (Baltimore): 2006; 85 5 278 287
11. Henrickson K. J. Parainfluenza viruses. Clin Microbiol Rev: 2003; 16 2 242 264
12. Karron R. A., Collins P. Parainfluenza viruses. In: Knipe D., Howley P. M., eds. Fields Virology. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins: 2006; 1497
13. Moscona A. Entry of parainfluenza virus into cells as a target for interrupting childhood respiratory disease. J Clin Invest: 2005; 115 7 1688 1698
14. Heilman C. A. From the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and the World Health Organization. Respiratory syncytial and parainfluenza viruses. J Infect Dis: 1990; 161 3 402 406
15. Huberman K., Peluso R. W., Moscona A. Hemagglutinin-neuraminidase of human parainfluenza 3: role of the neuraminidase in the viral life cycle. Virology: 1995; 214 1 294 300
16. Moscona A. Interaction of human parainfluenza virus type 3 with the host cell surface. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 1997; 16 10 917 924
17. Schomacker H., Schaap-Nutt A., Collins P. L., Schmidt A. C. Pathogenesis of acute respiratory illness caused by human parainfluenza viruses. Curr Opin Virol: 2012; 2 3 294 299
18. Ray R., Duncan J., Quinn R., Matsuoka Y. Distinct hemagglutinin and neuraminidase epitopes involved in antigenic variation of recent human parainfluenza virus type 2 isolates. Virus Res: 1992; 24 1 107 113
19. Komada H., Orstavik I., Ito Y., Norrby E. Strain variation in parainfluenza virus type 4. J Gen Virol: 1990; 71 Pt 7 1581 1583
20. Henrickson K. J. Monoclonal antibodies to human parainfluenza virus type 1 detect major antigenic changes in clinical isolates. J Infect Dis: 1991; 164 6 1128 1134
21. Ison M. G. Parainfluenza viruses. In: Bennett J. E., Dolin R., Blaser M. J., eds. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA Elsevier Saunders: 2015; 1937 1941
22. Castleman W. L., Northrop P. J., McAllister P. K. Replication of parainfluenza type-3 virus and bovine respiratory syncytial virus in isolated bovine type-II alveolar epithelial cells. Am J Vet Res: 1991; 52 6 880 885
23. Castleman W. L., Brundage-Anguish L. J., Kreitzer L., Neuenschwander S. B. Pathogenesis of bronchiolitis and pneumonia induced in neonatal and weanling rats by parainfluenza (Sendai) virus. Am J Pathol: 1987; 129 2 277 286
24. Welliver R. C., Wong D. T., Sun M., McCarthy N. Parainfluenza virus bronchiolitis. Epidemiology and pathogenesis. Am J Dis Child: 1986; 140 1 34 40
25. Welliver R. C., Wong D. T., Middleton E. Jr, Sun M., McCarthy N., Ogra P. L. Role of parainfluenza virus-specific IgE in pathogenesis of croup and wheezing subsequent to infection. J Pediatr: 1982; 101 6 889 896
26. Porter D. D., Prince G. A., Hemming V. G., Porter H. G. Pathogenesis of human parainfluenza virus 3 infection in two species of cotton rats: Sigmodon hispidus develops bronchiolitis, while Sigmodon fulviventer develops interstitial pneumonia. J Virol: 1991; 65 1 103 111
27. Bower J., McBride J. T. Croup in children (acute laryngotracheobronchitis). In: Bennett J. E., Dolin R., Blaser M. J., eds. Principles and Practices of Infectious Disease. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA Elsevier Saunders: 2015; 762 766
28. Matsuse H., Kondo Y., Saeki S., et al. Naturally occurring parainfluenza virus 3 infection in adults induces mild exacerbation of asthma associated with increased sputum concentrations of cysteinyl leukotrienes. Int Arch Allergy Immunol: 2005; 138 3 267 272
29. Smith C. B., Purcell R. H., Bellanti J. A., Chanock R. M. Protective effect of antibody to parainfluenza type 1 virus. N Engl J Med: 1966; 275 21 1145 1152
30. Spriggs M. K., Murphy B. R., Prince G. A., Olmsted R. A., Collins P. L. Expression of the F and HN glycoproteins of human parainfluenza virus type 3 by recombinant vaccinia viruses: contributions of the individual proteins to host immunity. J Virol: 1987; 61 11 3416 3423
31. Ray R., Matsuoka Y., Burnett T. L., Glaze B. J., Compans R. W. Human parainfluenza virus induces a type-specific protective immune response. J Infect Dis: 1990; 162 3 746 749
32. Henderson F. W. Pulmonary cell-mediated cytotoxicity in hamsters with parainfluenza virus type 3 pneumonia. Am Rev Respir Dis: 1979; 120 1 41 47
33. Hou S., Doherty P. C., Zijlstra M., Jaenisch R., Katz J. M. Delayed clearance of Sendai virus in mice lacking class I MHC-restricted CD8+ T cells. J Immunol: 1992; 149 4 1319 1325
34. Dave V. P., Allan J. E., Slobod K. S., et al. Viral cross-reactivity and antigenic determinants recognized by human parainfluenza virus type 1-specific cytotoxic T-cells. Virology: 1994; 199 2 376 383
35. Kasel J. A., Frank A. L., Keitel W. A., Taber L. H., Glezen W. P. Acquisition of serum antibodies to specific viral glycoproteins of parainfluenza virus 3 in children. J Virol: 1984; 52 3 828 832
36. Chanock R. M. Association of a new type of cytopathogenic myxovirus with infantile croup. J Exp Med: 1956; 104 4 555 576
37. Chanock R. M., Parrott R. H., Bell J. A., Rowe W. P., Huebner R. J. New viruses observed in children with respiratory diseases. Public Health Rep: 1958; 73 3 193 195
38. Fry A. M., Curns A. T., Harbour K., Hutwagner L., Holman R. C., Anderson L. J. Seasonal trends of human parainfluenza viral infections: United States, 1990-2004. Clin Infect Dis: 2006; 43 8 1016 1022
39. Ansari S. A., Springthorpe V. S., Sattar S. A., Rivard S., Rahman M. Potential role of hands in the spread of respiratory viral infections: studies with human parainfluenza virus 3 and rhinovirus 14. J Clin Microbiol: 1991; 29 10 2115 2119
40. Chew F. T., Doraisingham S., Ling A. E., Kumarasinghe G., Lee B. W. Seasonal trends of viral respiratory tract infections in the tropics. Epidemiol Infect: 1998; 121 1 121 128
41. Gardner S. D. The isolation of parainfluenza 4 subtypes A and B in England and serological studies of their prevalence. J Hyg (Lond): 1969; 67 3 545 550
42. Lindquist S. W., Darnule A., Istas A., Demmler G. J. Parainfluenza virus type 4 infections in pediatric patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 1997; 16 1 34 38
43. Vachon M. L., Dionne N., Leblanc E., Moisan D., Bergeron M. G., Boivin G. Human parainfluenza type 4 infections, Canada. Emerg Infect Dis: 2006; 12 11 1755 1758
44. Canchola J. G., Chanock R. M., Jeffries B. C., et al. Recovery and identification of human myxoviruses. Bacteriol Rev: 1965; 29 4 496 503
45. Canchola J., Vargosko A. J., Kim H. W., et al. Antigenic variation among newly isolated strains of parainfluenza type 4 virus. Am J Hyg: 1964; 79 357 364
46. Berman S. Epidemiology of acute respiratory infections in children of developing countries. Rev Infect Dis: 1991; 13 06 S454 S462
47. Denny F. W. Jr. The clinical impact of human respiratory virus infections. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 1995; 152 4, Pt 2 S4 S12
48. Kim M. R., Lee H. R., Lee G. M. Epidemiology of acute viral respiratory tract infections in Korean children. J Infect: 2000; 41 2 152 158
49. McIntosh K. Pathogenesis of severe acute respiratory infections in the developing world: respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza viruses. Rev Infect Dis: 1991; 13 06 S492 S500
50. Denny F. W., Clyde W. A. Jr. Acute lower respiratory tract infections in nonhospitalized children. J Pediatr: 1986; 108 5, Pt 1 635 646
51. Wright P. F. Parainfluenza viruses. In: Mandell G. L., ed. Principles and Practices of Infectious Diseases. Philadelphia, PA Churchill Livingston: 2000; 1770 1776
52. Fiore A. E., Iverson C., Messmer T., et al. Outbreak of pneumonia in a long-term care facility: antecedent human parainfluenza virus 1 infection may predispose to bacterial pneumonia. J Am Geriatr Soc: 1998; 46 9 1112 1117
53. Reed G., Jewett P. H., Thompson J., Tollefson S., Wright P. F. Epidemiology and clinical impact of parainfluenza virus infections in otherwise healthy infants and young children < 5 years old. J Infect Dis: 1997; 175 4 807 813
54. Weinberg G. A., Hall C. B., Iwane M. K., et al. New Vaccine Surveillance Network. Parainfluenza virus infection of young children: estimates of the population-based burden of hospitalization. J Pediatr: 2009; 154 5 694 699
55. Hemming V. G. Viral respiratory diseases in children: classification, etiology, epidemiology, and risk factors. J Pediatr: 1994; 124 (5, Pt 2): S13 S16
56. Counihan M. E., Shay D. K., Holman R. C., Lowther S. A., Anderson L. J. Human parainfluenza virus-associated hospitalizations among children less than five years of age in the United States. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 2001; 20 7 646 653
57. Lee M. S., Walker R. E., Mendelman P. M. Medical burden of respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus type 3 infection among US children. Implications for design of vaccine trials. Hum Vaccin: 2005; 1 1 6 11
58. Hall C. B. Respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus. N Engl J Med: 2001; 344 25 1917 1928
59. Gilca R., Amini R., Douville-Fradet M., et al. Other respiratory viruses are important contributors to adult respiratory hospitalizations and mortality even during peak weeks of the influenza season. Open Forum Infect Dis: 2014; 1 2 ofu086
60. Falsey A. R., Walsh E. E. Viral pneumonia in older adults. Clin Infect Dis: 2006; 42 4 518 524
61. Nisii C., Meschi S., Selleri M., et al. Frequency of detection of upper respiratory tract viruses in patients tested for pandemic H1N1/09 viral infection. J Clin Microbiol: 2010; 48 9 3383 3385
62. Osiowy C. Direct detection of respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus, and adenovirus in clinical respiratory specimens by a multiplex reverse transcription-PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol: 1998; 36 11 3149 3154
63. Gaunt E. R., Harvala H., McIntyre C., Templeton K. E., Simmonds P. Disease burden of the most commonly detected respiratory viruses in hospitalized patients calculated using the disability adjusted life year (DALY) model. J Clin Virol: 2011; 52 3 215 221
64. Johnstone J., Majumdar S. R., Fox J. D., Marrie T. J. Viral infection in adults hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia: prevalence, pathogens, and presentation. Chest: 2008; 134 6 1141 1148
65. Angeles Marcos M., Camps M., Pumarola T., et al. The role of viruses in the aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Antivir Ther: 2006; 11 3 351 359
66. Greenberg S. B., Allen M., Wilson J., Atmar R. L. Respiratory viral infections in adults with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2000; 162 1 167 173
67. Glezen W. P., Greenberg S. B., Atmar R. L., Piedra P. A., Couch R. B. Impact of respiratory virus infections on persons with chronic underlying conditions. JAMA: 2000; 283 4 499 505
68. Kherad O., Rutschmann O. T. Viral infections as a cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbation [in German]. Praxis (Bern 1994): 2010; 99 4 235 240
69. Hutchinson A. F., Ghimire A. K., Thompson M. A., et al. A community-based, time-matched, case-control study of respiratory viruses and exacerbations of COPD. Respir Med: 2007; 101 12 2472 2481
70. Parainfluenza infections in the elderly 1976-82. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed): 1983; 287 6405 1619
71. Anonymous Parainfluenza outbreaks in extended-care facilities-United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep: 1978; 27 475 476
72. Falsey A. R., Treanor J. J., Betts R. F., Walsh E. E. Viral respiratory infections in the institutionalized elderly: clinical and epidemiologic findings. J Am Geriatr Soc: 1992; 40 2 115 119
73. Glasgow K. W., Tamblyn S. E., Blair G. A respiratory outbreak due to parainfluenza virus type 3 in a home for the aged-Ontario. Can Commun Dis Rep: 1995; 21 7 57 61
74. Arroyo J. C., Jordan W., Milligan L. Upper respiratory tract infection and serum antibody responses in nursing home patients. Am J Infect Control: 1988; 16 4 152 158
75. Gross P. A., Rodstein M., LaMontagne J. R., et al. Epidemiology of acute respiratory illness during an influenza outbreak in a nursing home. A prospective study. Arch Intern Med: 1988; 148 3 559 561
76. Falsey A. R., McCann R. M., Hall W. J., et al. Acute respiratory tract infection in daycare centers for older persons. J Am Geriatr Soc: 1995; 43 1 30 36
77. Marcolini J. A., Malik S., Suki D., Whimbey E., Bodey G. P. Respiratory disease due to parainfluenza virus in adult leukemia patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis: 2003; 22 2 79 84
78. Nichols W. G., Corey L., Gooley T., Davis C., Boeckh M. Parainfluenza virus infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: risk factors, response to antiviral therapy, and effect on transplant outcome. Blood: 2001; 98 3 573 578
79. Hodson A., Kasliwal M., Streetly M., MacMahon E., Raj K. A parainfluenza-3 outbreak in a SCT unit: sepsis with multi-organ failure and multiple co-pathogens are associated with increased mortality. Bone Marrow Transplant: 2011; 46 12 1545 1550
80. Vilchez R. A., McCurry K., Dauber J., et al. The epidemiology of parainfluenza virus infection in lung transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis: 2001; 33 12 2004 2008
81. Vilchez R., McCurry K., Dauber J., et al. Influenza and parainfluenza respiratory viral infection requiring admission in adult lung transplant recipients. Transplantation: 2002; 73 7 1075 1078
82. Billings J. L., Hertz M. I., Savik K., Wendt C. H. Respiratory viruses and chronic rejection in lung transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant: 2002; 21 5 559 566
83. Vesa S., Kleemola M., Blomqvist S., Takala A., Kilpi T., Hovi T. Epidemiology of documented viral respiratory infections and acute otitis media in a cohort of children followed from two to twenty-four months of age. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 2001; 20 6 574 581
84. Henrickson K. J., Hoover S., Kehl K. S., Hua W. National disease burden of respiratory viruses detected in children by polymerase chain reaction. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 2004; 23 (1, Suppl): S11 S18
85. Johnson D. Croup. Clin Evid: 2005; 14 310 327
86. Rosychuk R. J., Klassen T. P., Metes D., Voaklander D. C., Senthilselvan A., Rowe B. H. Croup presentations to emergency departments in Alberta, Canada: a large population-based study. Pediatr Pulmonol: 2010; 45 1 83 91
87. Sofer S., Dagan R., Tal A. The need for intubation in serious upper respiratory tract infection in pediatric patients (a retrospective study). Infection: 1991; 19 3 131 134
88. Tan A. K., Manoukian J. J. Hospitalized croup (bacterial and viral): the role of rigid endoscopy. J Otolaryngol: 1992; 21 1 48 53
89. McEniery J., Gillis J., Kilham H., Benjamin B. Review of intubation in severe laryngotracheobronchitis. Pediatrics: 1991; 87 6 847 853
90. Westley C. R., Cotton E. K., Brooks J. G. Nebulized racemic epinephrine by IPPB for the treatment of croup: a double-blind study. Am J Dis Child: 1978; 132 5 484 487
91. Thompson M., Vodicka T. A., Blair P. S., Buckley D. I., Heneghan C., Hay A. D.; TARGET Programme Team Duration of symptoms of respiratory tract infections in children: systematic review. BMJ: 2013; 347 f7027
92. Hasegawa K., Tsugawa Y., Brown D. F., Mansbach J. M., Camargo C. A. Jr. Trends in bronchiolitis hospitalizations in the United States, 2000-2009. Pediatrics: 2013; 132 1 28 36
93. Swingler G. H., Hussey G. D., Zwarenstein M. Duration of illness in ambulatory children diagnosed with bronchiolitis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med: 2000; 154 10 997 1000
94. Williams D. J., Shah S. S. Community-acquired pneumonia in the Conjugate Vaccine Era. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc: 2012; 1 4 314 328
95. Jain S., Finelli L.; CDC EPIC Study Team. Community-acquired pneumonia among U.S. children. N Engl J Med: 2015; 372 22 2167 2168
96. Slavin K. A., Passaro D. J., Hacker J. K., Hendry R. M., Kohl S. Parainfluenza virus type 4: case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 2000; 19 9 893 896
97. Cooney M. K., Fox J. P., Hall C. E. The Seattle Virus Watch. VI. Observations of infections with and illness due to parainfluenza, mumps and respiratory syncytial viruses and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Am J Epidemiol: 1975; 101 6 532 551
98. Nicholson K. G., Baker D. J., Farquhar A., Hurd D., Kent J., Smith S. H. Acute upper respiratory tract viral illness and influenza immunization in homes for the elderly. Epidemiol Infect: 1990; 105 3 609 618
99. Gwaltney J. M. Jr, Scheld W. M., Sande M. A., Sydnor A. The microbial etiology and antimicrobial therapy of adults with acute community-acquired sinusitis: a fifteen-year experience at the University of Virginia and review of other selected studies. J Allergy Clin Immunol: 1992; 90 3, Pt 2 457 461, discussion 462
100. Fransén H., Wolontis S. Infections with viruses, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and bacteria in acute respiratory illness. A study of hospitalized patients, patients treated at home, and healthy subjects. Scand J Infect Dis: 1969; 1 1 31 37
101. Monto A. S., Sullivan K. M. Acute respiratory illness in the community. Frequency of illness and the agents involved. Epidemiol Infect: 1993; 110 1 145 160
102. Stanek J., Heinz F. On the epidemiology and etiology of pneumonia in adults. J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol: 1988; 32 1 31 38
103. Talbot H. K., Falsey A. R. The diagnosis of viral respiratory disease in older adults. Clin Infect Dis: 2010; 50 5 747 751
104. Falsey A. R., Becker K. L., Swinburne A. J., et al. Bacterial complications of respiratory tract viral illness: a comprehensive evaluation. J Infect Dis: 2013; 208 3 432 441
105. Buscho R. O., Saxtan D., Shultz P. S., Finch E., Mufson M. A. Infections with viruses and Mycoplasma pneumoniae during exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J Infect Dis: 1978; 137 4 377 383
106. Hudgel D. W., Langston L. Jr, Selner J. C., McIntosh K. Viral and bacterial infections in adults with chronic asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis: 1979; 120 2 393 397
107. Dimopoulos G., Lerikou M., Tsiodras S., et al. Viral epidemiology of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Pulm Pharmacol Ther: 2012; 25 1 12 18
108. Hansbro N. G., Horvat J. C., Wark P. A., Hansbro P. M. Understanding the mechanisms of viral induced asthma: new therapeutic directions. Pharmacol Ther: 2008; 117 3 313 353
109. Carilli A. D., Gohd R. S., Gordon W. A virologic study of chronic bronchitis. N Engl J Med: 1964; 270 123 127
110. Johnston N. W. The similarities and differences of epidemic cycles of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma exacerbations. Proc Am Thorac Soc: 2007; 4 8 591 596
111. Whimbey E., Vartivarian S. E., Champlin R. E., Elting L. S., Luna M., Bodey G. P. Parainfluenza virus infection in adult bone marrow transplant recipients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis: 1993; 12 9 699 701
112. Chemaly R. F., Hanmod S. S., Rathod D. B., et al. The characteristics and outcomes of parainfluenza virus infections in 200 patients with leukemia or recipients of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Blood: 2012; 119 12 2738 2745, quiz 2969
113. Luján-Zilbermann J., Benaim E., Tong X., Srivastava D. K., Patrick C. C., DeVincenzo J. P. Respiratory virus infections in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis: 2001; 33 7 962 968
114. Srinivasan A., Wang C., Yang J., Shenep J. L., Leung W. H., Hayden R. T. Symptomatic parainfluenza virus infections in children undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant: 2011; 17 10 1520 1527
115. Ison M. G. Respiratory viral infections in transplant recipients. Antivir Ther: 2007; 12 (4, Pt B): 627 638
116. Ferguson P. E., Sorrell T. C., Bradstock K., Carr P., Gilroy N. M. Parainfluenza virus type 3 pneumonia in bone marrow transplant recipients: multiple small nodules in high- resolution lung computed tomography scans provide a radiological clue to diagnosis. Clin Infect Dis: 2009; 48 7 905 909
117. Herzog K. D., Dunn S. P., Langham M. R. Jr, Marmon L. M. Association of parainfluenza virus type 3 infection with allograft rejection in a liver transplant recipient. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 1989; 8 8 534 536
118. DeFabritus A. M., Riggio R. R., David D. S., Senterfit L. B., Cheigh J. S., Stenzel K. H. Parainfluenza type 3 in a transplant unit. JAMA: 1979; 241 4 384 386
119. Palmer S. M. Jr, Henshaw N. G., Howell D. N., Miller S. E., Davis R. D., Tapson V. F. Community respiratory viral infection in adult lung transplant recipients. Chest: 1998; 113 4 944 950
120. Matar L. D., McAdams H. P., Palmer S. M., et al. Respiratory viral infections in lung transplant recipients: radiologic findings with clinical correlation. Radiology: 1999; 213 3 735 742
121. Frank J. A. Jr, Warren R. W., Tucker J. A., Zeller J., Wilfert C. M. Disseminated parainfluenza infection in a child with severe combined immunodeficiency. Am J Dis Child: 1983; 137 12 1172 1174
122. Bloom H., Johnson K., Jacobsen R., Chanock R. Recovery of parainfluenza viruses from adults with upper respiratory tract illnesses. Am J Epi: 1961; 74 50 59
123. Zhao H., De B. P., Das T., Banerjee A. K. Inhibition of human parainfluenza virus-3 replication by interferon and human MxA. Virology: 1996; 220 2 330 338
124. Seidman D. S., Nass D., Mendelson E., Shehtman I., Mashiach S., Achiron R. Prenatal ultrasonographic diagnosis of fetal hydrocephalus due to infection with parainfluenza virus type 3. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol: 1996; 7 1 52 54
125. Singh-Naz N., Willy M., Riggs N. Outbreak of parainfluenza virus type 3 in a neonatal nursery. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 1990; 9 1 31 33
126. Meissner H. C., Murray S. A., Kiernan M. A., Snydman D. R., McIntosh K. A simultaneous outbreak of respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus type 3 in a newborn nursery. J Pediatr: 1984; 104 5 680 684
127. McCarthy V. P., Carlile J. R., Reichelderfer P. S., Clark J. S. Parainfluenza type 3 in newborns. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 1987; 6 2 217 218
128. MacDonald N. E., Wolfish N., McLaine P., Phipps P., Rossier E. Role of respiratory viruses in exacerbations of primary nephrotic syndrome. J Pediatr: 1986; 108 3 378 382
129. Wilks D., Burns S. M. Myopericarditis associated with parainfluenza virus type 3 infection. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis: 1998; 17 5 363 365
130. Bitnun A., Ford-Jones E. L., Petric M., et al. Acute childhood encephalitis and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis: 2001; 32 12 1674 1684
131. Downham M. A., McQuillin J., Gardner P. S. Diagnosis and clinical significance of parainfluenza virus infections in children. Arch Dis Child: 1974; 49 1 8 15
132. Vreede R. W., Schellekens H., Zuijderwijk M. Isolation of parainfluenza virus type 3 from cerebrospinal fluid. J Infect Dis: 1992; 165 6 1166
133. Wong V. K., Steinberg E., Warford A. Parainfluenza virus type 3 meningitis in an 11-month-old infant. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 1988; 7 4 300 301
134. Arguedas A., Stutman H. R., Blanding J. G. Parainfluenza type 3 meningitis. Report of two cases and review of the literature. Clin Pediatr (Phila): 1990; 29 3 175 178
135. Román G., Phillips C. A., Poser C. M. Parainfluenza virus type 3: isolation from CSF of a patient with Guillain-Barré syndrome. JAMA: 1978; 240 15 1613 1615
136. Munywoki P. K., Hamid F., Mutunga M., Welch S., Cane P., Nokes D. J. Improved detection of respiratory viruses in pediatric outpatients with acute respiratory illness by real-time PCR using nasopharyngeal flocked swabs. J Clin Microbiol: 2011; 49 9 3365 3367
137. Branche A. R., Walsh E. E., Formica M. A., Falsey A. R. Detection of respiratory viruses in sputum from adults by use of automated multiplex PCR. J Clin Microbiol: 2014; 52 10 3590 3596
138. Herrmann E. C. Jr, Hable K. A. Experiences in laboratory diagnosis of parainfluenza viruses in routine medical practice. Mayo Clin Proc: 1970; 45 3 177 188
139. Leland D. S., Ginocchio C. C. Role of cell culture for virus detection in the age of technology. Clin Microbiol Rev: 2007; 20 1 49 78
140. Olsen M. A., Shuck K. M., Sambol A. R., Flor S. M., O'Brien J., Cabrera B. J. Isolation of seven respiratory viruses in shell vials: a practical and highly sensitive method. J Clin Microbiol: 1993; 31 2 422 425
141. Miall F., Rye A., Fraser M., Hunter A., Snowden J. A. Human parainfluenza type 4 infection: a case report highlighting pathogenicity and difficulties in rapid diagnosis in the post-transplant setting. Bone Marrow Transplant: 2002; 29 6 541 542
142. Hirsch H. H., Martino R., Ward K. N., Boeckh M., Einsele H., Ljungman P. Fourth European Conference on Infections in Leukaemia (ECIL-4): guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of human respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus, metapneumovirus, rhinovirus, and coronavirus. Clin Infect Dis: 2013; 56 2 258 266
143. Fan J., Henrickson K. J., Savatski L. L. Rapid simultaneous diagnosis of infections with respiratory syncytial viruses A and B, influenza viruses A and B, and human parainfluenza virus types 1, 2, and 3 by multiplex quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction-enzyme hybridization assay (Hexaplex). Clin Infect Dis: 1998; 26 6 1397 1402
144. Babady N. E. The FilmArray® respiratory panel: an automated, broadly multiplexed molecular test for the rapid and accurate detection of respiratory pathogens. Expert Rev Mol Diagn: 2013; 13 8 779 788
145. Kuypers J., Wright N., Ferrenberg J., et al. Comparison of real-time PCR assays with fluorescent-antibody assays for diagnosis of respiratory virus infections in children. J Clin Microbiol: 2006; 44 7 2382 2388
146. Kuypers J., Campbell A. P., Cent A., Corey L., Boeckh M. Comparison of conventional and molecular detection of respiratory viruses in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis: 2009; 11 4 298 303
147. Kadmon G., Levy I., Mandelboim M., et al. Polymerase-chain-reaction-based diagnosis of viral pulmonary infections in immunocompromised children. Acta Paediatr: 2013; 102 6 e263 e268
148. Weinberg G. A., Erdman D. D., Edwards K. M., et al. New Vaccine Surveillance Network Study Group. Superiority of reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction to conventional viral culture in the diagnosis of acute respiratory tract infections in children. J Infect Dis: 2004; 189 4 706 710
149. Pabbaraju K., Tokaryk K. L., Wong S., Fox J. D. Comparison of the Luminex xTAG respiratory viral panel with in-house nucleic acid amplification tests for diagnosis of respiratory virus infections. J Clin Microbiol: 2008; 46 9 3056 3062
150. Ruggiero P., McMillen T., Tang Y. W., Babady N. E. Evaluation of the BioFire FilmArray respiratory panel and the GenMark eSensor respiratory viral panel on lower respiratory tract specimens. J Clin Microbiol: 2014; 52 1 288 290
151. Templeton K. E., Scheltinga S. A., Beersma M. F., Kroes A. C., Claas E. C. Rapid and sensitive method using multiplex real-time PCR for diagnosis of infections by influenza a and influenza B viruses, respiratory syncytial virus, and parainfluenza viruses 1, 2, 3, and 4. J Clin Microbiol: 2004; 42 4 1564 1569
152. Pabbaraju K., Wong S., Tokaryk K. L., Fonseca K., Drews S. J. Comparison of the Luminex xTAG respiratory viral panel with xTAG respiratory viral panel fast for diagnosis of respiratory virus infections. J Clin Microbiol: 2011; 49 5 1738 1744
153. Julkunen I. Serological diagnosis of parainfluenza virus infections by enzyme immunoassay with special emphasis on purity of viral antigens. J Med Virol: 1984; 14 2 177 187
154. van der Logt J. T., van Loon A. M., Heessen F. W., van der Veen J. Diagnosis of parainfluenza virus infection in children and older patients by detection of specific IgM antibody. J Med Virol: 1985; 16 2 191 199
155. Bjornson C. L., Johnson D. W. Croup. Lancet: 2008; 371 9609 329 339
156. Bjornson C. L., Klassen T. P., Williamson J., et al. Pediatric Emergency Research Canada Network. A randomized trial of a single dose of oral dexamethasone for mild croup. N Engl J Med: 2004; 351 13 1306 1313
157. Kairys S. W., Olmstead E. M., O'Connor G. T. Steroid treatment of laryngotracheitis: a meta-analysis of the evidence from randomized trials. Pediatrics: 1989; 83 5 683 693
158. Kristjánsson S., Berg-Kelly K., Winsö E. Inhalation of racemic adrenaline in the treatment of mild and moderately severe croup. Clinical symptom score and oxygen saturation measurements for evaluation of treatment effects. Acta Paediatr: 1994; 83 11 1156 1160
159. Seo S., Xie H., Campbell A. P., et al. Parainfluenza virus lower respiratory tract disease after hematopoietic cell transplant: viral detection in the lung predicts outcome. Clin Infect Dis: 2014; 58 10 1357 1368
160. Gilbert B. E., Knight V. Biochemistry and clinical applications of ribavirin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1986; 30 2 201 205
161. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Infectious Diseases Reassessment of the indications for ribavirin therapy in respiratory syncytial virus infections. Pediatrics: 1996; 97 1 137 140
162. Picardi A., Gentilucci U. V., Zardi E. M., D'Avola D., Amoroso A., Afeltra A. The role of ribavirin in the combination therapy of hepatitis C virus infection. Curr Pharm Des: 2004; 10 17 2081 2092
163. Chakrabarti S., Collingham K. E., Holder K., Fegan C. D., Osman H., Milligan D. W. Pre-emptive oral ribavirin therapy of paramyxovirus infections after haematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a pilot study. Bone Marrow Transplant: 2001; 28 8 759 763
164. Stankova J., Carret A. S., Moore D., et al. Long-term therapy with aerosolized ribavirin for parainfluenza 3 virus respiratory tract infection in an infant with severe combined immunodeficiency. Pediatr Transplant: 2007; 11 2 209 213
165. Sparrelid E., Ljungman P., Ekelöf-Andström E., et al. Ribavirin therapy in bone marrow transplant recipients with viral respiratory tract infections. Bone Marrow Transplant: 1997; 19 9 905 908
166. Shima T., Yoshimoto G., Nonami A., et al. Successful treatment of parainfluenza virus 3 pneumonia with oral ribavirin and methylprednisolone in a bone marrow transplant recipient. Int J Hematol: 2008; 88 3 336 340
167. Wright J. J., O'driscoll G. Treatment of parainfluenza virus 3 pneumonia in a cardiac transplant recipient with intravenous ribavirin and methylprednisolone. J Heart Lung Transplant: 2005; 24 3 343 346
168. Chakrabarti S., Collingham K. E., Holder K., Oyaide S., Pillay D., Milligan D. W. Parainfluenza virus type 3 infections in hematopoetic stem cell transplant recipients: response to ribavirin therapy. Clin Infect Dis: 2000; 31 6 1516 1518
169. Casey J., Morris K., Narayana M., Nakagaki M., Kennedy G. A. Oral ribavirin for treatment of respiratory syncitial virus and parainfluenza 3 virus infections post allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant: 2013; 48 12 1558 1561
170. Elizaga J., Olavarria E., Apperley J., Goldman J., Ward K. Parainfluenza virus 3 infection after stem cell transplant: relevance to outcome of rapid diagnosis and ribavirin treatment. Clin Infect Dis: 2001; 32 3 413 418
171. Kalimuddin S., Sessions O. M., Hou Y., et al. Successful clearance of human parainfluenza virus type 2 viraemia with intravenous ribavirin and immunoglobulin in a patient with acute myocarditis. J Clin Virol: 2013; 56 1 37 40
172. Liu V., Dhillon G. S., Weill D. A multi-drug regimen for respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus infections in adult lung and heart-lung transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis: 2010; 12 1 38 44
173. McIntosh K., Kurachek S. C., Cairns L. M., Burns J. C., Goodspeed B. Treatment of respiratory viral infection in an immunodeficient infant with ribavirin aerosol. Am J Dis Child: 1984; 138 3 305 308
174. Nichols W. G., Gooley T., Boeckh M. Community-acquired respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center experience. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant: 2001; 7 (Suppl): 11S 15S
175. Moss R. B., Steigbigel R. T., Sanders R. L., Fang F. Perspective: emerging challenges in the treatment of influenza and parainfluenza in transplant patients. Adv Virol: 2011; 2011 910930
176. Triana-Baltzer G. B., Sanders R. L., Hedlund M., et al. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of influenza virus mutants selected with the sialidase fusion protein DAS181. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2011; 66 1 15 28
177. Nishino R., Ikeda K., Hayakawa T., Takahashi T., Suzuki T., Sato M. Syntheses of 2-deoxy-2,3-didehydro-N-acetylneuraminic acid analogues modified by N-sulfonylamidino groups at the C-4 position and biological evaluation as inhibitors of human parainfluenza virus type 1. Bioorg Med Chem: 2011; 19 7 2418 2427
178. Chen Y. B., Driscoll J. P., McAfee S. L., et al. Treatment of parainfluenza 3 infection with DAS181 in a patient after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis: 2011; 53 7 e77 e80
179. Jones B. G., Hayden R. T., Hurwitz J. L. Inhibition of primary clinical isolates of human parainfluenza virus by DAS181 in cell culture and in a cotton rat model. Antiviral Res: 2013; 100 2 562 566
180. Drozd D. R., Limaye A. P., Moss R. B., et al. DAS181 treatment of severe parainfluenza type 3 pneumonia in a lung transplant recipient. Transpl Infect Dis: 2013; 15 1 E28 E32
181. Chalkias S., Mackenzie M. R., Gay C., et al. DAS181 treatment of hematopoietic stem cell transplant patients with parainfluenza virus lung disease requiring mechanical ventilation. Transpl Infect Dis: 2014; 16 1 141 144
182. Waghmare A., Wagner T., Andrews R., et al. Successful treatment of parainfluenza virus respiratory tract infection with DAS181 in 4 immunocompromised children. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc: 2015; 4 2 114 118
183. Pastey M. K., Gower T. L., Spearman P. W., Crowe J. E. Jr, Graham B. S. A RhoA-derived peptide inhibits syncytium formation induced by respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus type 3. Nat Med: 2000; 6 1 35 40
184. Mao H., Thakur C. S., Chattopadhyay S., Silverman R. H., Gudkov A., Banerjee A. K. Inhibition of human parainfluenza virus type 3 infection by novel small molecules. Antiviral Res: 2008; 77 2 83 94
185. Mao H., Chattopadhyay S., Banerjee A. K. N-terminally truncated C protein, CNDelta25, of human parainfluenza virus type 3 is a potent inhibitor of viral replication. Virology: 2009; 394 1 143 148
186. Watanabe M., Mishin V. P., Brown S. A., et al. Effect of hemagglutinin-neuraminidase inhibitors BCX 2798 and BCX 2855 on growth and pathogenicity of Sendai/human parainfluenza type 3 chimera virus in mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2009; 53 9 3942 3951
187. Alymova I. V., Watanabe M., Boyd K. L., Chand P., Babu Y. S., Portner A. Efficacy of the novel parainfluenza virus haemagglutinin-neuraminidase inhibitor BCX 2798 in mice - further evaluation. Antivir Ther: 2009; 14 7 891 898
188. Ottolini M. G., Hemming V. G., Piazza F. M., Johnson S. A., Darnell M. E., Prince G. A. Topical immunoglobulin is an effective therapy for parainfluenza type 3 in a cotton rat model. J Infect Dis: 1995; 172 1 243 245
189. Ottolini M. G., Porter D. D., Blanco J. C., Prince G. A. A cotton rat model of human parainfluenza 3 laryngotracheitis: virus growth, pathology, and therapy. J Infect Dis: 2002; 186 12 1713 1717
190. Prince G. A., Porter D. D. Treatment of parainfluenza virus type 3 bronchiolitis and pneumonia in a cotton rat model using topical antibody and glucocorticosteroid. J Infect Dis: 1996; 173 3 598 608
191. Sridhar S., Luk H. K., Lau S. K., Woo P. C. First report of severe parainfluenza virus 4B and rhinovirus C coinfection in a liver transplant recipient treated with immunoglobulin. J Clin Virol: 2014; 61 4 611 614
192. Cotugno N., Manno E. C., Stoppa F., et al. Severe parainfluenza pneumonia in a case of transient hypogammalobulinemia of infancy. BMJ Case Rep: 2013;;2013:10.1136/bcr,2013-009959
193. Seo S., Xie H., Karron R. A., et al. Parainfluenza virus type 3 Ab in allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant recipients: factors influencing post-transplant Ab titers and associated outcomes. Bone Marrow Transplant: 2014; 49 9 1205 1211
194. Schmidt A. C., Schaap-Nutt A., Bartlett E. J., et al. Progress in the development of human parainfluenza virus vaccines. Expert Rev Respir Med: 2011; 5 4 515 526
195. Wright P. F., Karron R. A., Belshe R. B., et al. The absence of enhanced disease with wild type respiratory syncytial virus infection occurring after receipt of live, attenuated, respiratory syncytial virus vaccines. Vaccine: 2007; 25 42 7372 7378
196. Karron R. A., Casey R., Thumar B., et al. The cDNA-derived investigational human parainfluenza virus type 3 vaccine rcp45 is well tolerated, infectious, and immunogenic in infants and young children. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 2011; 30 10 e186 e191
197. Karron R. A., Thumar B., Schappell E., et al. Evaluation of two chimeric bovine-human parainfluenza virus type 3 vaccines in infants and young children. Vaccine: 2012; 30 26 3975 3981
198. Bernstein D. I., Malkin E., Abughali N., Falloon J., Yi T., Dubovsky F. MI-CP149 Investigators Phase 1 study of the safety and immunogenicity of a live, attenuated respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus type 3 vaccine in seronegative children. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 2012; 31 2 109 114
199. Gomez M., Mufson M. A., Dubovsky F., Knightly C., Zeng W., Losonsky G. Phase-I study MEDI-534, of a live, attenuated intranasal vaccine against respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza-3 virus in seropositive children. Pediatr Infect Dis J: 2009; 28 7 655 658
200. Hall C. B., Geiman J. M., Breese B. B., Douglas R. G. Jr. Parainfluenza viral infections in children: correlation of shedding with clinical manifestations. J Pediatr: 1977; 91 2 194 198
201. Brady M. T., Evans J., Cuartas J. Survival and disinfection of parainfluenza viruses on environmental surfaces. Am J Infect Control: 1990; 18 1 18 23
202. Muchmore H. G., Parkinson A. J., Humphries J. E., et al. Persistent parainfluenza virus shedding during isolation at the South Pole. Nature: 1981; 289 5794 187 189
203. Nichols W. G., Erdman D. D., Han A., Zukerman C., Corey L., Boeckh M. Prolonged outbreak of human parainfluenza virus 3 infection in a stem cell transplant outpatient department: insights from molecular epidemiologic analysis. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant: 2004; 10 1 58 64
204. Maziarz R. T., Sridharan P., Slater S., et al. Control of an outbreak of human parainfluenza virus 3 in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant: 2010; 16 2 192 198
205. Harvala H., Gaunt E., McIntyre C., et al. Epidemiology and clinical characteristics of parainfluenza virus 3 outbreak in a Haemato-oncology unit. J Infect: 2012; 65 3 246 254
206. Peck A. J., Englund J. A., Kuypers J., et al. Respiratory virus infection among hematopoietic cell transplant recipients: evidence for asymptomatic parainfluenza virus infection. Blood: 2007; 110 5 1681 1688
207. Huang C. C., Shih S. L. Images in clinical medicine. Steeple sign of croup. N Engl J Med: 2012; 367 1 66