Differential effects of childhood trauma and cannabis use disorders in patients suffering from schizophrenia

Schizophrenia Research

Volumn 175, Issue 1-3, 2016, Pages 161-167

  Baudin, G ^a,b,c,d   Godin, O ^a,r   Lajnef, M ^b   Aouizerate, B ^a,f,g,p   Berna, F ^a,h   Brunel, L ^a,b,c,e   Capdevielle, D ^a,i   Chereau, I ^a,j   Dorey, J M ^a,k   Dubertret, C ^a,l   Dubreucq, J ^a,m   Faget, C ^a,n   Fond, G ^a,b,c,e   Gabayet, F ^a,m   Laouamri, H ^a   Lancon, C ^a,n   Le Strat, Y ^a,l   Tronche, A M ^a,j   Misdrahi, D ^a,g,h,q   Rey, R ^a,k   Passerieux, C ^a,o   Schandrin, A ^a,i   Urbach, M ^a,o   Vidalhet, P ^h   Llorca, P M ^a,j   Schurhoff F ^a,b,c,e   more..

^a FONDATION FONDAMENTAL   (France)

^b INSERM U955   (France)

^c ASSISTANCE PUBLIQUE HÔPITAUX DE PARIS   (France)

^d UNIVERSITÉ DE TOURS   (France)

^e UNIVERSITÉ PARIS EST CRÉTEIL   (France)

^f CENTRE HOSPITALIER CHARLES PERRENS   (France)

^g UNIVERSITÉ DE BORDEAUX   (France)

^h UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF STRASBOURG   (France)

ⁱ MONTPELLIER UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (France)

^j UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF CLERMONT FERRAND   (France)

^k UNIVERSITÉ LYON 1   (France)

^l HÔPITAL LOUIS MOURIER   (France)

^m Centre Referent de Rehabilitation Psychosociale   (France)

ⁿ ASSISTANCE PUBLIQUE HÔPITAUX DE MARSEILLE   (France)

^o LABORATOIRE DES SCIENCES DU CLIMAT ET DE L ENVIRONNEMENT   (France)

^p INSTITUT FRANÇOIS MAGENDIE   (France)

^q UMR 5287   (France)

^r SORBONNE UNIVERSITÉ   (France)

more..

Author keywords

Cannabis use disorder; Childhood trauma; Schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; ASSESSMENT OF HUMANS; BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT; CANNABIS ADDICTION; CANNABIS USE; CHILDHOOD INJURY; CHILDHOOD TRAUMA QUESTIONNAIRE; COLUMBIA SUICIDE SEVERITY RATING SCALE; CONTROLLED STUDY; DSM-IV-TR; EMOTIONAL STRESS; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; FEMALE; GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF FUNCTIONING; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MEDICATION ADHERENCE RATING SCALE; ONSET AGE; POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SYNDROME SCALE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE ASSESSMENT; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SHORT QUALITY OF LIFE 18; STRUCTURED CLINICAL INTERVIEW FOR DSM DISORDERS; CHILDHOOD TRAUMA SURVIVOR; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPLICATION; MENTAL STRESS; MULTICENTER STUDY; PSYCHOLOGICAL RATING SCALE; PSYCHOLOGY; PSYCHOSIS;

ADULT; ADULT SURVIVORS OF CHILD ADVERSE EVENTS; AGE OF ONSET; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MARIJUANA ABUSE; PSYCHIATRIC STATUS RATING SCALES; PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SCHIZOPHRENIC PSYCHOLOGY; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 84975483735     PISSN: 09209964     EISSN: 15732509     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2016.04.042     Document Type: Article

References (74)

1. Ackner, S., Skeate, A., Patterson, P., Neal, A., Emotional abuse and psychosis: a recent review of the literature. J. Aggress. Maltreat. Trauma 22 (2013), 1032–1049, 10.1080/10926771.2013.837132.
2. Álvarez, M.-J., Roura, P., Osés, A., Foguet, Q., Solà, J., Arrufat, F.-X., Prevalence and clinical impact of childhood trauma in patients with severe mental disorders. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 199 (2011), 156–161, 10.1097/NMD.0b013e31820c751c.
3. Amr, M., El-Wasify, M., Amin, T., Roy, A., Childhood trauma in Egyptian patients with schizophrenia: a cry over Nile. Schizophr. Res. 124 (2010), 242–243, 10.1016/j.schres.2010.08.042.
4. Barbeito, S., Vega, P., Ruiz de Azúa, S., Saenz, M., Martinez-Cengotitabengoa, M., González-Ortega, I., Bermudez, C., Hernanz, M., de Corres, B.F., González-Pinto, A., Cannabis use and involuntary admission may mediate long-term adherence in first-episode psychosis patients: a prospective longitudinal study. BMC Psychiatry, 13, 2013, 326, 10.1186/1471-244X-13-326.
5. Barnes, A.L., Murphy, M.E., Fowler, C.A., Rempfer, M.V., Health-related quality of life and overall life satisfaction in people with serious mental illness. Schizophr. Res. Treat. 2012 (2012), 1–6, 10.1155/2012/245103.
6. Barrowclough, C., Gregg, L., Lobban, F., Bucci, S., Emsley, R., The impact of cannabis use on clinical outcomes in recent onset psychosis. Schizophr. Bull. 41 (2015), 382–390, 10.1093/schbul/sbu095.
7. Bentall, R.P., Corcoran, R., Howard, R., Blackwood, N., Kinderman, P., Persecutory delusions: a review and theoretical integration. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 21 (2001), 1143–1192.
8. Bentall, R.P., de Sousa, P., Varese, F., Wickham, S., Sitko, K., Haarmans, M., Addington, J., From adversity to psychosis: pathways and mechanisms from specific adversities to specific symptoms. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 49 (2014), 1011–1022, 10.1007/s00127-014-0914-0.
9. Bowlby, J., Separation: Anxiety and Anger. 1973, Basic Books, New York.
10. Callcott, P., Standart, S., Turkington, D., Trauma within psychosis: using a CBT model for PTSD in psychosis. Behav. Cogn. Psychother. 32 (2004), 239–244, 10.1017/S1352465804001249.
11. Carr, C.P., Martins, C.M.S., Stingel, A.M., Lemgruber, V.B., Juruena, M.F., The role of early life stress in adult psychiatric disorders: a systematic review according to childhood trauma subtypes. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 201 (2013), 1007–1020, 10.1097/NMD.0000000000000049.
12. Cohen, C.I., Palekar, N., Barker, J., Ramirez, P.M., The relationship between trauma and clinical outcome variables among older adults with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Off. J. Am. Assoc. Geriatr. Psychiatry 20 (2012), 408–415, 10.1097/JGP.0b013e318211817e.
13. Coldham, E.L., Addington, J., Addington, D., Medication adherence of individuals with a first episode of psychosis. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 106 (2002), 286–290.
14. Conus, P., Cotton, S., Schimmelmann, B.G., McGorry, P.D., Lambert, M., Pretreatment and outcome correlates of sexual and physical trauma in an epidemiological cohort of first-episode psychosis patients. Schizophr. Bull. 36 (2010), 1105–1114, 10.1093/schbul/sbp009.
15. Drewe, M., Drewe, J., Riecher-Rossler, A., Cannabis and risk of psychosis. Swiss Med. Wkly. 134 (2004), 659–663.
16. Faber, G., Smid, H.G.O.M., Van Gool, A.R., Wunderink, L., van den Bosch, R.J., Wiersma, D., Continued cannabis use and outcome in first-episode psychosis: data from a randomized, open-label, controlled trial. J. Clin. Psychiatry 73 (2012), 632–638, 10.4088/JCP.11m07069.
17. Fergusson, D.M., Boden, J.M., Horwood, L.J., The developmental antecedents of illicit drug use: evidence from a 25-year longitudinal study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 96 (2008), 165–177, 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.03.003.
18. Freeman, D., Garety, P.A., Kuipers, E., Fowler, D., Bebbington, P.E., A cognitive model of persecutory delusions. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 41 (2002), 331–347.
19. Gil, A., Gama, C.S., de Jesus, D.R., Lobato, M.I., Zimmer, M., Belmonte-de-Abreu, P., The association of child abuse and neglect with adult disability in schizophrenia and the prominent role of physical neglect. Child Abuse Negl. 33 (2009), 618–624, 10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.02.006.
20. Gumley, A.I., Taylor, H.E.F., Schwannauer, M., MacBeth, A., A systematic review of attachment and psychosis: measurement, construct validity and outcomes. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 129 (2014), 257–274, 10.1111/acps.12172.
21. Harley, M., Kelleher, I., Clarke, M., Lynch, F., Arseneault, L., Connor, D., Fitzpatrick, C., Cannon, M., Cannabis use and childhood trauma interact additively to increase the risk of psychotic symptoms in adolescence. Psychol. Med. 40 (2010), 1627–1634, 10.1017/S0033291709991966.
22. Hayatbakhsh, M.R., Najman, J.M., Jamrozik, K., Mamun, A.A., O'Callaghan, M.J., Williams, G.M., Childhood sexual abuse and cannabis use in early adulthood: findings from an Australian birth cohort study. Arch. Sex. Behav. 38 (2009), 135–142, 10.1007/s10508-007-9172-5.
23. Holowka, D.W., King, S., Saheb, D., Pukall, M., Brunet, A., Childhood abuse and dissociative symptoms in adult schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 60 (2003), 87–90.
24. Houston, J.E., Murphy, J., Adamson, G., Stringer, M., Shevlin, M., Childhood sexual abuse, early cannabis use, and psychosis: testing an interaction model based on the National Comorbidity Survey. Schizophr. Bull. 34 (2007), 580–585, 10.1093/schbul/sbm127.
25. Houston, J.E., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Adamson, G., Cannabis use and psychosis: re-visiting the role of childhood trauma. Psychol. Med. 41 (2011), 2339–2348, 10.1017/S0033291711000559.
26. Janssen, I., Krabbendam, L., Bak, M., Hanssen, M., Vollebergh, W., de Graaf, R., van Os, J., Childhood abuse as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 109 (2004), 38–45.
27. Kolliakou, A., Joseph, C., Ismail, K., Atakan, Z., Murray, R.M., Why do patients with psychosis use cannabis and are they ready to change their use?. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 29 (2011), 335–346, 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2010.11.006.
28. Kolliakou, A., Castle, D., Sallis, H., Joseph, C., O'Connor, J., Wiffen, B., Gayer-Anderson, C., McQueen, G., Taylor, H., Bonaccorso, S., Gaughran, F., Smith, S., Greenwood, K., Murray, R.M., Di Forti, M., Atakan, Z., Ismail, K., Reasons for cannabis use in first-episode psychosis: does strength of endorsement change over 12 months? Eur. Psychiatry 30 (2015), 152–159, 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2014.10.007.
29. Konings, M., Henquet, C., Maharajh, H.D., Hutchinson, G., Van Os, J., Early exposure to cannabis and risk for psychosis in young adolescents in Trinidad. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 118 (2008), 209–213, 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2008.01202.x.
30. Konings, M., Stefanis, N., Kuepper, R., de Graaf, R., ten Have, M., van Os, J., Bakoula, C., Henquet, C., Replication in two independent population-based samples that childhood maltreatment and cannabis use synergistically impact on psychosis risk. Psychol. Med. 42 (2012), 149–159, 10.1017/S0033291711000973.
31. Large, M., Sharma, S., Compton, M.T., Slade, T., Nielssen, O., Cannabis use and earlier onset of psychosis: a systematic meta-analysis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 68 (2011), 555–561, 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.5.
32. Large, M., Mullin, K., Gupta, P., Harris, A., Nielssen, O., Systematic meta-analysis of outcomes associated with psychosis and co-morbid substance use. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 48 (2014), 418–432, 10.1177/0004867414525838.
33. Larsson, S., Andreassen, O.A., Aas, M., Røssberg, J.I., Mork, E., Steen, N.E., Barrett, E.A., Lagerberg, T.V., Peleikis, D., Agartz, I., Melle, I., Lorentzen, S., High prevalence of childhood trauma in patients with schizophrenia spectrum and affective disorder. Compr. Psychiatry 54 (2013), 123–127, 10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.06.009.
34. Limosin, F., Neurodevelopmental and environmental hypotheses of negative symptoms of schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry, 14, 2014, 88.
35. Liotti, G., Gumley, A., An attachment perspective on schizophrenia: the role of disorganized attachment, dissociation and mentalization. Moskowitz, A., Schfer, I., Dorahy, M.J., (eds.) Psychosis, Trauma and Dissociation, 2008, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK, 117–133.
36. Luby, J.L., Gaffrey, M.S., Tillman, R., April, L.M., Belden, A.C., Trajectories of preschool disorders to full DSM depression at school age and early adolescence: continuity of preschool depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 171 (2014), 768–776, 10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13091198.
37. Lysaker, P.H., LaRocco, V., The prevalence and correlates of trauma-related symptoms in schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Compr. Psychiatry 49 (2008), 330–334, 10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.12.003.
38. Lysaker, P.H., LaRocco, V.A.P., Health-related quality of life and trauma history in adults with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. J. Nerv. 197 (2009), 311–315, 10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181a2070e.
39. Lysaker, P.H., Salyers, M.P., Anxiety symptoms in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: associations with social function, positive and negative symptoms, hope and trauma history. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 116 (2007), 290–298, 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01067.x.
40. Manrique-Garcia, E., Zammit, S., Dalman, C., Hemmingsson, T., Andreasson, S., Allebeck, P., Prognosis of schizophrenia in persons with and without a history of cannabis use. Psychol. Med. 44 (2014), 2513–2521, 10.1017/S0033291714000191.
41. Matheson, S.L., Shepherd, A.M., Pinchbeck, R.M., Laurens, K.R., Carr, V.J., Childhood adversity in schizophrenia: a systematic meta-analysis. Psychol. Med. 43 (2013), 225–238, 10.1017/S0033291712000785.
42. Matheson, S.L., Shepherd, A.M., Carr, V.J., How much do we know about schizophrenia and how well do we know it? Evidence from the Schizophrenia Library. Psychol. Med. 44 (2014), 3387–3405, 10.1017/S0033291714000166.
43. McCabe, K.L., Maloney, E.A., Stain, H.J., Loughland, C.M., Carr, V.J., Relationship between childhood adversity and clinical and cognitive features in schizophrenia. J. Psychiatr. Res. 46 (2012), 600–607, 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.01.023.
44. Miller, R., Ream, G., McCormack, J., Gunduz-Bruce, H., Sevy, S., Robinson, D., A prospective study of cannabis use as a risk factor for non-adherence and treatment dropout in first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 113 (2009), 138–144, 10.1016/j.schres.2009.04.018.
45. Moore, T.H., Zammit, S., Lingford-Hughes, A., Barnes, T.R., Jones, P.B., Burke, M., Lewis, G., Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review. Lancet, 370, 2007.
46. Morgan, C., Fisher, H., Environment and schizophrenia: environmental factors in schizophrenia: childhood trauma—a critical review. Schizophr. Bull. 33 (2007), 3–10, 10.1093/schbul/sbl053.
47. Morgan, C., Reininghaus, U., Reichenberg, A., Frissa, S., SELCoH study team, Hotopf, M., Hatch, S.L., Adversity, cannabis use and psychotic experiences: evidence of cumulative and synergistic effects. Br. J. Psychiatry, 2014, 10.1192/bjp.bp.113.134452.
48. Murphy, J., Houston, J.E., Shevlin, M., Adamson, G., Childhood sexual trauma, cannabis use and psychosis: statistically controlling for pre-trauma psychosis and psychopathology. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 48 (2013), 853–861, 10.1007/s00127-012-0592-8.
49. Myles, N., Newall, H., Nielssen, O., Large, M., The association between cannabis use and earlier age at onset of schizophrenia and other psychoses: meta-analysis of possible confounding factors. Curr. Pharm. Des. 18 (2012), 5055–5069.
50. Norman, R.E., Byambaa, M., De, R., Butchart, A., Scott, J., Vos, T., The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med., 9, 2012, e1001349, 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349.
51. Oshri, A., Rogosch, F.A., Burnette, M.L., Cicchetti, D., Developmental pathways to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence: child maltreatment, emerging personality, and internalizing versus externalizing psychopathology. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 25 (2011), 634–644, 10.1037/a0023151.
52. Paquette, D., Laporte, L., Bigras, M., Zoccolillo, M., Validation de la version française du CTQ et prévalence de l'histoire de maltraitance. Santé Ment. Au Qué. 29 (2004), 201–220, 10.7202/008831ar.
53. Read, J., Gumley, A., Can attachment theory help explain the relationship between childhood adversity and psychosis?. Attach. New Dir. Psychother. Relational Psychoanal. 2 (2008), 1–35.
54. Read, J., Perry, B.D., Moskowitz, A., Connolly, J., The contribution of early traumatic events to schizophrenia in some patients: a traumagenic neurodevelopmental model. Psychiatry 64 (2001), 319–345.
55. Read, J., Goodman, L., Morrison, A.P., Ross, C.A., Aderhold, V., Childhood Trauma, Loss and Stress, in: Models of Madness: Psychological, Social and Biological Approaches to Schizophrenia. 2004, Brunner-Routledge, Hove, East Sussex, 223–252.
56. Read, J., van Os, J., Morrison, A.P., Ross, C.A., Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: a literature review with theoretical and clinical implications. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 112 (2005), 330–350, 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00634.x.
57. Rogosch, F.A., Oshri, A., Cicchetti, D., From child maltreatment to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence: a developmental cascade model. Dev. Psychopathol. 22 (2010), 883–897, 10.1017/S0954579410000520.
58. Rosenberg, S., Lu, W., Mueser, K., Jankowski, M.K., Cournos, F., Correlates of adverse childhood events among adults with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Psychiatr. Serv. 58 (2007), 245–253.
59. Schimmelmann, B.G., Conus, P., Cotton, S., Kupferschmid, S., McGorry, P.D., Lambert, M., Prevalence and impact of cannabis use disorders in adolescents with early onset first episode psychosis. Eur. Psychiatry 27 (2012), 463–469, 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.03.001.
60. Schore, A.N., The effects of early relational trauma on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health. Infant Ment. Health J. 22 (2001), 201–269.
61. Schürhoff, F., Fond, G., Berna, F., Bulzacka, E., Vilain, J., Capdevielle, D., Misdrahi, D., Leboyer, M., Llorca, P.-M., FondaMental Academic Centers of Expertise for Schizophrenia (FACE-SZ) Collaborators. A national network of schizophrenia expert centres: an innovative tool to bridge the research-practice gap. Eur. Psychiatry, 2015.
62. Serafini, G., Pompili, M., Innamorati, M., Rihmer, Z., Sher, L., Girardi, P., Can cannabis increase the suicide risk in psychosis? A critical review. Curr. Pharm. Des. 18 (2012), 5165–5187, 10.2174/138161212802884663.
63. Shevlin, M., Houston, J.E., Dorahy, M.J., Adamson, G., Cumulative traumas and psychosis: an analysis of the National Comorbidity Survey and the British Psychiatric Morbidity survey. Schizophr. Bull. 34 (2007), 193–199, 10.1093/schbul/sbm069.
64. Shevlin, M., Murphy, J., Houston, J.E., Adamson, G., Childhood sexual abuse, early cannabis use, and psychosis: testing the effects of different temporal orderings based on the National Comorbidity Survey. Psychosis 1 (2009), 19–28, 10.1080/17522430802546640.
65. Sitko, K., Bentall, R.P., Shevlin, M., O′Sullivan, N., Sellwood, W., Associations between specific psychotic symptoms and specific childhood adversities are mediated by attachment styles: an analysis of the National Comorbidity Survey. Psychiatry Res. 217 (2014), 202–209, 10.1016/j.psychres.2014.03.019.
66. Stefanis, N.C., Dragovic, M., Power, B.D., Jablensky, A., Castle, D., Morgan, V.A., Age at initiation of cannabis use predicts age at onset of psychosis: the 7- to 8-year trend. Schizophr. Bull. 39 (2013), 251–254, 10.1093/schbul/sbs188.
67. Stone, J.M., Fisher, H.L., Major, B., Chisholm, B., Woolley, J., Lawrence, J., Rahaman, N., Joyce, J., Hinton, M., Johnson, S., Young, A.H., Cannabis use and first-episode psychosis: relationship with manic and psychotic symptoms, and with age at presentation. Psychol. Med. 44 (2014), 499–506, 10.1017/S0033291713000883.
68. Talamo, A., Centorrino, F., Tondo, L., Dimitri, A., Hennen, J., Baldessarini, R.J., Comorbid substance-use in schizophrenia: relation to positive and negative symptoms. Schizophr. Res. 86 (2006), 251–255, 10.1016/j.schres.2006.04.004.
69. van Dijk, D., Koeter, M.W.J., Hijman, R., Kahn, R.S., van den Brink, W., Effect of cannabis use on the course of schizophrenia in male patients: a prospective cohort study. Schizophr. Res. 137 (2012), 50–57, 10.1016/j.schres.2012.01.016.
70. van Os, J., Kenis, G., Rutten, B.P.F., The environment and schizophrenia. Nature 468 (2010), 203–212, 10.1038/nature09563.
71. Varese, F., Smeets, F., Drukker, M., Lieverse, R., Lataster, T., Viechtbauer, W., Read, J., van Os, J., Bentall, R.P., Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophr. Bull. 38 (2012), 661–671, 10.1093/schbul/sbs050.
72. Wang, Z., Xue, Z., Pu, W., Yang, B., Li, L., Yi, W., Wang, P., Liu, C., Wu, G., Liu, Z., Rosenheck, R.A., Comparison of first-episode and chronic patients diagnosed with schizophrenia: symptoms and childhood trauma: symptom and child abuse in schizophrenia. Early Interv. Psychiatry 7 (2013), 23–30, 10.1111/j.1751-7893.2012.00387.x.
73. Whitfield, C.L., Dube, S.R., Felitti, V.J., Anda, R.F., Adverse childhood experiences and hallucinations. Child Abuse Negl. 29 (2005), 797–810, 10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.01.004.
74. Yucel, M., Bora, E., Lubman, D.I., Solowij, N., Brewer, W.J., Cotton, S.M., Conus, P., Takagi, M.J., Fornito, A., Wood, S.J., McGorry, P.D., Pantelis, C., The impact of cannabis use on cognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of existing findings and new data in a first-episode sample. Schizophr. Bull. 38 (2012), 316–330, 10.1093/schbul/sbq079.