Sometimes the Social Becomes Personal: Gender, Class, and Sexualities

American Sociological Review

Volumn 81, Issue 1, 2016, Pages 4-28

  England, Paula ^a  

^a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

class; gender; sexualities

Indexed keywords

CLASS; GENDER DISPARITY; GENDER RELATIONS; SEXUALITY; WOMENS STATUS;

EID: 84961377132     PISSN: 00031224     EISSN: 19398271     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0003122415621900     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. R.K.Q.AkeeRandall K. Q.W.E.CopelandWilliam E.G.KeelerGordonA.AngoldAdrianE.J.CostelloE. Jane. 2010. “Parents’ Incomes and Children’s Outcomes: A Quasi-Experiment Using Transfer Payments from Casino Profits.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics2(1):86–115.
2. D.M.AlwinDuane M.1993. “Social Structure and Self-Direction: A Comparative Analysis of the United States and Poland.” Contemporary Sociology22(1):58–61.
3. E.AndersonEric. 2011. Inclusive Masculinity: The Changing Nature of Masculinities. New York: Routledge.
4. E.A.ArmstrongElizabeth A.L.T.HamiltonLaura T.2013. Paying for the Party: How College Maintains Inequality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
5. J.M.BaileyJ. MichaelM.P.DunneMichael P.N.G.MartinNicholas G.2000. “Genetic and Environmental Influences on Sexual Orientation and Its Correlates in an Australian Twin Sample.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology78(3):524–36.
6. J.M.BaileyJ. MichaelR.C.PillardRichard C.1991. “A Genetic Study of Male Sexual Orientation.” Archives of General Psychiatry48(12):1089–96.
7. J.M.BaileyJ. MichaelR.C.PillardRichard C.M.C.NealeMichael C.Y.AgyeiYvonne. 1993. “Heritable Factors Influence Sexual Orientation in Women.” Archives of General Psychiatry50(3):217–23.
8. J.BaileyJohnM.WallaceMichaelB.WrightBradley. 2013. “Are Gay Men and Lesbians Discriminated against When Applying for Jobs? A Four-City, Internet-Based Field Experiment.” Journal of Homosexuality60(6):873–94.
9. A.BanduraAlbert. 1997. Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: Macmillan.
10. R.F.BaumeisterRoy F.M.GailliotMatthewC.N.DeWallC. NathanM.OatenMegan. 2006. “Self-Regulation and Personality: How Interventions Increase Regulatory Success, and How Depletion Moderates the Effects of Traits on Behavior.” Journal of Personality74(6):1773–1802.
11. P.S.BearmanPeter S.H.BrücknerHannah. 2002. “Opposite-Sex Twins and Adolescent Same-Sex Attraction.” American Journal of Sociology107(5):1179–1205.
12. P.BelleyPhilippeL.LochnerLance. 2007. “The Changing Role of Family Income and Ability in Determining Educational Achievement.” Journal of Human Capital1(1):37–89.
13. H.BokHilary. 1998. Freedom and Responsibility. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
14. H.D.BoonstraHeather D.R.B.GoldRachel BensonC.L.RichardsCory L.L.B.FinerLawrence B.2006. “Abortion in Women’s Lives.” New York: Guttmacher Institute.
15. P.BourdieuPierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
16. P.BourdieuPierre. 2001. Masculine Domination. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
17. I.BrowneIreneP.EnglandPaula. 1997. “Oppression from Within and Without in Sociological Theories: An Application to Gender.” Current Perspectives in Social Theory17:77–104.
18. M.L.CaudilloMónica L.P.EnglandPaula. 2015. “Women’s Sexual Orientation and Sexual Behavior: How Well Do They Match?”Sexuality and Inequality Research Blog (http://contexts.org/blog/womens-sexual-orientation-and-sexual-behavior-how-well-do-they-match/).
19. E.A.CechErin A.2013. “The Self-Expressive Edge of Occupational Sex Segregation.” American Journal of Sociology119(3):747–89.
20. M.CharlesMariaK.BradleyKaren. 2009. “Indulging Our Gendered Selves? Sex Segregation by Field of Study in 44 Countries.” American Journal of Sociology114(4):924–76.
21. J.S.ClausenJohn S.1991. “Adolescent Competence and the Shaping of the Life Course.” American Journal of Sociology96(4):805–42.
22. P.J.CookPhilip J.A.M.ParnellAllan M.M.J.MooreMichael J.D.PagniniDeanna. 1999. “The Effects of Short-Term Variation in Abortion Funding on Pregnancy Outcomes.” Journal of Health Economics18(2):241–57.
23. L.M.DiamondLisa M.2008a. “Female Bisexuality from Adolescence to Adulthood: Results from a 10-Year Longitudinal Study.” Developmental Psychology44(1):5–14.
24. L.M.DiamondLisa M.2008b. Sexual Fluidity: Understanding Women’s Love and Desire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
25. L.M.DiamondLisa M.2014. “Gender and Same-Sex Sexuality.” Pp. 629–52 in APA Handbook of Sexuality and Psychology, Vol. 1, Person-Based Approaches, edited by Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
26. P.DiMaggioPaul. 1979. “Review: On Pierre Bourdieu.” American Journal of Sociology84(6):1460–74.
27. A.DuckworthAngelaJ.J.GrossJames J.2014. “Self-Control and Grit: Related but Separable Determinants of Success.” Current Directions in Psychological Science23(5):319–25.
28. G.J.DuncanGreg J.K.MagnusonKatherineE.Votruba-DrzalElizabeth. 2014. “Boosting Family Income to Promote Child Development.” The Future of Children24(1):99–120.
29. G.J.DuncanGreg J.P.A.MorrisPamela A.C.RodriguesChris. 2011. “Does Money Really Matter? Estimating Impacts of Family Income on Young Children’s Achievement with Data from Random-Assignment Experiments.” Developmental Psychology47(5):1263–79.
30. K.EdinKathrynP.EnglandPaulaE.F.ShaferEmily FitzgibbonsJ.ReedJoanna. 2007. “Forming Fragile Families: Was the Baby Planned, Unplanned, or In Between?” Pp. 25–54 in Unmarried Couples with Children, edited by New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
31. K.EdinKathrynM.KefalasMaria. 2005. Promises I Can Keep: Why Poor Women Put Motherhood before Marriage. Berkeley: University of California Press.
32. P.EnglandPaula. 1992. Comparable Worth: Theories and Evidence. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
33. P.EnglandPaula. 2010. “The Gender Revolution: Uneven and Stalled.” Gender & Society24(2):149–66.
34. P.EnglandPaula. 2011. “Reassessing the Uneven Gender Revolution and Its Slowdown.” Gender & Society25(1):113–23.
35. P.EnglandPaulaI.BrowneIrene. 1992. “Internalization and Constraint in Women’s Subordination.” Current Perspectives in Social Theory12:97–123.
36. P.EnglandPaulaM.L.CaudilloMónica L.K.LittlejohnKrystaleB.C.BassBrooke ConroyJ.ReedJoanna. 2015. “Why Do Young, Unmarried Women Who Don’t Want to Get Pregnant Contracept Inconsistently? Mixed-Method Evidence for the Role of Efficacy.” Unpublished paper available upon request from Paula England (pengland@nyu.edu).
37. P.EnglandPaulaJ.M.HermsenJoan M.D.CotterDavid. 2000. “The Devaluation of Women’s Work: A Comment on Tam.” American Journal of Sociology105(6):1741–51.
38. P.EnglandPaulaE.A.McClintockElizabeth AuraE.F.ShaferEmily Fitzgibbons. 2011. “Birth Control Use and Early, Unintended Births.” Pp. 21–49 in Social Class and Changing Families in an Unequal America, edited by Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
39. P.EnglandPaulaL.L.ReidLori L.B.S.KilbourneBarbara Stanek. 1996. “The Effect of the Sex Composition of Jobs on Starting Wages in an Organization: Findings from the NLSY.” Demography33(4):511–21.
40. P.EnglandPaulaE.F.ShaferEmily FitzgibbonsL.L.WuLawrence L.2012. “Premarital Conceptions, Postconception (‘Shotgun’) Marriages, and Premarital First Births: Education Gradients in U.S. Cohorts of White and Black Women Born 1925–1959.” Demographic Research27:153–66.
41. P.EnglandPaulaA.SrivastavaAnjula. 2013. “Educational Differences in US Parents’ Time Spent in Child Care: The Role of Culture and Cross-Spouse Influence.” Social Science Research42(4):971–88.
42. C.F.EpsteinCynthia Fuchs. 1988. Deceptive Distinctions: Sex, Gender, and the Social Order. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
43. M.M.FerreeMyra M.J.LorberJudithB.B.HessBeth B.1999. “Introduction.” Pp. xv–xxxvi in Revisioning Gender, edited by Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
44. L.B.FinerLawrence B.S.K.HenshawStanley K.2006. “Disparities in Rates of Unintended Pregnancy in the United States, 1994 and 2001.” Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health38(2):90–96.
45. L.B.FinerLawrence B.M.R.ZolnaMia R.2011. “Unintended Pregnancy in the United States: Incidence and Disparities, 2006.” Contraception84(5):478–85.
46. L.B.FinerLawrence B.M.R.ZolnaMia R.2014. “Shifts in Intended and Unintended Pregnancies in the United States, 2001–2008.” American Journal of Public Health104(S1):S43–48.
47. J.J.FrostJennifer J.S.SinghSusheelaL.B.FinerLawrence B.2007. “Factors Associated with Contraceptive Use and Nonuse, United States, 2004.” Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health39(2):90–99.
48. G.J.GatesGary J.F.NewportFrank. 2012. “Special Report: 3.4% of U.S. Adults Identify as LGBT.” Gallup.com. Retrieved September2, 2015 (http://www.gallup.com/poll/158066/special-report-adults-identify-lgbt.aspx).
49. V.GecasViktor. 1989. “The Social Psychology of Self-Efficacy.” Annual Review of Sociology15:291–316.
50. D.A.Grimes2009. “Forgettable Contraception.” Contraception80(6):497–99.
51. Guttmacher Institute. 2015. State Funding of Abortion under Medicaid. New York: Guttmacher Institute. Retrieved September9, 2015 (http://www.guttmacher.org/statecenter/spibs/spib_SFAM.pdf).
52. L.HamiltonLaura. 2007. “Trading on Heterosexuality: College Women’s Gender Strategies and Homophobia.” Gender & Society21(2):145–72.
53. G.M.HerekGregory M.2009. “Hate Crimes and Stigma-Related Experiences among Sexual Minority Adults in the United States: Prevalence Estimates from a National Probability Sample.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence24(1):54–74.
54. V.J.HotzV. JosephJ.A.KlermanJacob AlexR.J.WillisRobert J.1997. “The Economics of Fertility in Developed Countries.” Pp. 275–347 in Handbook of Population and Family Economics 1, edited by Amsterdam: Elsevier BV.
55. J.S.HouseJames S.1977. “The Three Faces of Social Psychology.” Sociometry40(2):161–77.
56. J.S.HouseJames S.2015. Beyond Obamacare: Life, Death, and Social Policy. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
57. J.S.HouseJames S.J.MortimerJeylan. 1990. “Social Structure and the Individual: Emerging Themes and New Directions.” Social Psychology Quarterly53(2):71–80.
58. M.HoutMichaelA.JanusAlexander. 2011. “Educational Mobility in the United States since the 1930s.” Pp. 165–86 in Whither Opportunity? Rising Inequality, Schools, and Children’s Life Chances, edited by New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
59. J.A.JacobsJerry A.1989. Revolving Doors: Sex Segregation and Women’s Careers. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
60. R.K.JonesRachel K.M.L.KavanaughMegan L.2011. “Changes in Abortion Rates between 2000 and 2008 and Lifetime Incidence of Abortion.” Obstetrics & Gynecology117(6):1358–66.
61. R.M.KanterRosabeth M.1976. “The Impact of Hierarchical Structures on the Work Behavior of Women and Men.” Social Problems23(4):415–30.
62. R.M.KanterRosabeth Moss. 1977. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books.
63. B.S.KilbourneBarbara StanekP.EnglandPaulaG.FarkasGeorgeK.BeronKurtD.WeirDorothea. 1994. “Returns to Skill, Compensating Differentials, and Gender Bias: Effects of Occupational Characteristics on the Wages of White Women and Men.” American Journal of Sociology100(3):689–719.
64. P.KimPilyoungG.W.EvansGary W.M.AngstadtMichaelS.S.HoS. ShaunC.S.SripadaChandra S.J.E.SwainJames E.I.LiberzonIsraelK.L.PhanK. Luan. 2013. “Effects of Childhood Poverty and Chronic Stress on Emotion Regulatory Brain Function in Adulthood.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences110(46):18442–47.
65. M.L.KohnMelvin L.C.SchoolerCarmi. 1973. “Occupational Experience and Psychological Functioning: An Assessment of Reciprocal Effects.” American Sociological Review38(1):97–118.
66. M.L.KohnMelvin L.C.SchoolerCarmi with M.JoanneMillerK.A.MillerKaren A.C.SchoenbachCarrieR.SchoenbergRonald. 1983. Work and Personality: An Inquiry into the Impact of Social Stratification. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.
67. P.M.LantzPaula M.J.W.LynchJohn W.J.S.HouseJames S.J.M.LepkowskiJames M.R.P.MeroRichard P.M.A.MusickMarc A.D.R.WilliamsDavid R.2001. “Socioeconomic Disparities in Health Change in a Longitudinal Study of US Adults: The Role of Health-Risk Behaviors.” Social Science & Medicine53(1):29–40.
68. A.LareauAnnette. 2011. Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life. Oakland: University of California Press.
69. J.S.LernerJennifer S.Y.LiYeE.U.WeberElke U.2013. “The Financial Costs of Sadness.” Psychological Science24(1):72–79.
70. A.LevanonAsafP.EnglandPaulaP.AllisonPaul. 2009. “Occupational Feminization and Pay: Assessing Causal Dynamics Using 1950–2000 U.S. Census Data.” Social Forces88(2):865–91.
71. S.K.LewisSusan K.C.E.RossCatherine E.J.MirowskyJohn. 1999. “Establishing a Sense of Personal Control in the Transition to Adulthood.” Social Forces77(4):1573–99.
72. M.A.LongmoreMonica A.W.D.ManningWendy D.P.C.GiordanoPeggy C.J.L.RudolphJennifer L.2003. “Contraceptive Self-Efficacy: Does It Influence Adolescents’ Contraceptive Use?”Journal of Health and Social Behavior44(1):45–60.
73. P.Y.MartinPatricia Yancey. 2004. “Gender as Social Institution.” Social Forces82:1249–73.
74. M.M.MariniMargaret M.M.BrintonMary. 1984. “Sex Typing in Occupational Socialization. “ Pp. 192–32 in Sex Segregation in the Workplace: Trends, Explanations, Remedies, edited by Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
75. J.MetcalfeJanetW.MischelWalter. 1999. “A Hot/Cool System Analysis of Delay of Gratification: Dynamics of Willpower.” Psychological Review106(1):3–19.
76. J.MirowskyJohnC.E.RossCatherine E.2003. Education, Social Status, and Health. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
77. J.MirowskyJohnC.E.RossCatherine E.2005. “Education, Learned Effectiveness and Health.” London Review of Education3(3):205–220.
78. W.MischelWalterO.AydukOzlem. 2004. “Willpower in a Cognitive-Affective Processing System: The Dynamics of Delay of Gratification.” Pp. 99–129 in Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications, edited by New York: Guilford.
79. W.MischelWalterY.ShodaYuichiM.I.RodriguezMonica I.1989. “Delay of Gratification in Children.” Science244(4907):933–38.
80. E.MishelEmma. 2015. “Discrimination against Queer Women in the U.S. Workforce: A Résumé Audit Study.” Presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Chicago, IL.
81. S.P.MorganS. PhilipA.M.ParnellAllan M.2002. “Effects on Pregnancy Outcomes of Changes in the North Carolina State Abortion Fund.” Population Research and Policy Review21(4):319–38.
82. S.MullainathanSendhilE.ShafirEldar. 2013. Scarcity: Why Having Too Little Means So Much. New York: Times Books.
83. K.MusickKellyP.EnglandPaulaS.EdgingtonSarahN.KangasNicole. 2009. “Education Differences in Intended and Unintended Fertility.” Social Forces88(2):543–72.
84. D.OkamotoDinaP.EnglandPaula. 1999. “Is There a Supply Side to Occupational Sex Segregation?”Sociological Perspectives42(4):557–82.
85. F.C.PampelFred C.P.M.KruegerPatrick M.J.T.DenneyJustin T.2010. “Socioeconomic Disparities in Health Behaviors.” Annual Review of Sociology36:349–70.
86. C.J.Pascoe2005. “‘Dude, You’re a Fag’: Adolescent Masculinity and the Fag Discourse.” Sexualities8(3):329–46.
87. C.J.Pascoe2007. Dude, You’re a Fag. Berkeley: University of California Press.
88. L.A.PaulLaurie Ann. 1999. “Essays on Causation.” Dissertation, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ. Retrieved September21, 2015 (http://philpapers.org/rec/PAUEOC-2).
89. J.PearsonJennifer. 2006. “Personal Control, Self-Efficacy in Sexual Negotiation, and Contraceptive Risk among Adolescents: The Role of Gender.” Sex Roles54(9–10):615–25.
90. J.F.PeipertJeffrey F.Q.ZhaoQiuhongJ.E.AllsworthJenifer E.E.PetroskyEmikoT.MaddenTessaD.EisenbergDavidG.SecuraGina. 2011. “Continuation and Satisfaction of Reversible Contraception.” Obstetrics and Gynecology117(5):1105–13.
91. Planned Parenthood. 2015. “In-Clinic Abortion Procedures: What Is the Cost & Process?” Retrieved September9, 2015 (http://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/abortion/in-clinic-abortion-procedures).
92. C.C.RaverC. CybeleC.BlairClancyM.WilloughbyMichael. 2013. “Poverty as a Predictor of 4-Year-Olds’ Executive Function: New Perspectives on Models of Differential Susceptibility.” Developmental Psychology49(2):292–304.
93. J.ReedJoannaP.EnglandPaulaK.LittlejohnKrystaleB.C.BassBrooke ConroyM.L.CaudilloMónica L.2014. “Consistent and Inconsistent Contraception among Young Women: Insights from Qualitative Interviews.” Family Relations63(2):244–58.
94. B.F.ReskinBarbara F.M.L.MarotoMichelle L.2011. “What Trends? Whose Choices? Comment on England.” Gender & Society25(1):81–87.
95. B.F.ReskinBarbara F.P.A.RoosPatricia A.1990. Job Queues, Gender Queues: Explaining Women’s Inroads into Male Occupations. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
96. C.L.RidgewayCecilia L.S.J.CorrellShelley J.2004. “Unpacking the Gender System: A Theoretical Perspective on Gender Beliefs and Social Relations.” Gender & Society18(4):510–31.
97. B.J.RismanBarbara J.2004. “Gender as a Social Structure: Theory Wrestling with Activism.” Gender & Society18(4):429–50.
98. C.E.RossCatherine E.J.MirowskyJohn. 2013. “The Sense of Personal Control: Social Structural Causes and Emotional Consequences.” Pp. 379–402 in Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, edited by New York: Springer.
99. J.B.RotterJulian B.1966. “Generalized Expectancies for Internal versus External Control of Reinforcement.” Psychological Monographs: General and Applied80(1):1–28.
100. L.J.RuppLeila J.2012. “Sexual Fluidity ‘Before Sex.’” Signs37(4):849–56.
101. L.J.RuppLeila J.V.TaylorVertaS.Regev-MessalemShiriA.FogartyAlisonP.EnglandPaula. 2014. “Queer Women in the Hookup Scene: Beyond the Closet?”Gender & Society28(2):212–35.
102. W.H.SewellWilliam H.R.M.HauserRobert M.1980. “The Wisconsin Longitudinal Study of Social and Psychological Factors in Aspirations and Achievements.” Pp. 59–99 in Research in Sociology of Education and Socialization: A Research Annual, Vol. I, edited by Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
103. P.T.SharkeyPatrick T.N.Tirado-StrayerNicoleA.V.PapachristosAndrew V.C.C.RaverC. Cybele. 2012. “The Effect of Local Violence on Children’s Attention and Impulse Control.” American Journal of Public Health102(12):2287–93.
104. Y.ShavitYossiH.-P.BlossfeldHans-Peter, eds. 1993. Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
105. J.SilvermanJaneA.TorresAidaJ.D.ForrestJacqueline Darroch. 1987. “Barriers to Contraceptive Services.” Family Planning Perspectives19(3):94–102.
106. M.L.SmallMario LuisD.J.HardingDavid J.M.LamontMichèle. 2010. “Reconsidering Culture and Poverty.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science629(1):6–27.
107. T.TamTony. 1997. “Sex Segregation and Occupational Gender Inequality in the United States: Devaluation or Specialized Training?” American Journal of Sociology102(6):1652–92.
108. T.TamTony. 2000. “Occupational Wage Inequality and Devaluation: A Cautionary Tale of Measurement Error.” American Journal of Sociology105(6):1752–60.
109. A.TilcsikAndrás. 2011. “Pride and Prejudice: Employment Discrimination against Openly Gay Men in the United States.” American Journal of Sociology117(2):586–626.
110. J.TrussellJamesK.A.GuthrieKatherine A.2011. “Choosing a Contraceptive: Efficacy, Safety, and Personal Considerations.” Pp. 45–74 in Contraceptive Technology: Twentieth Revised Edition, edited by New York: Ardent Media.
111. M.A.VillarroelMaria A.C.F.TurnerCharles F.E.EgglestonElizabethA.Al-TayyibAliaS.M.RogersSusan M.A.M.RomanAnthony M.P.C.CooleyPhilip C.H.GordekHarper. 2006. “Same-Gender Sex in the United States: Impact of T-Acasi on Prevalence Estimates.” Public Opinion Quarterly70(2):166–96.
112. L.WacquantLoïc. 2005. “Habitus.” Pp. 315–19 in International Encyclopedia of Economic Sociology, edited by London, UK: Routledge.
113. A.W.WattsAlexander W.2015. “Sexuality, Gender, and Morality: Testing an Integrated Theory of Anti-Gay Prejudice.” Unpublished paper, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
114. C.WestCandaceD.H.ZimmermanDon H.1987. “Doing Gender.” Gender & Society1(2):125–51.
115. S.WolfSusan. 1993. Freedom within Reason. New York: Oxford University Press.
116. L.WuLawrenceS.P.MartinStephen P.2015. “Premarital First Births: The Influence of the Timing of Sexual Onset versus Post-onset Risks in the United States.” Population Studies69(3):281–98.