Revisiting the Role of Rewards in Motivation and Learning: Implications of Neuroscientific Research

Educational Psychology Review

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 2016, Pages 61-93

  Hidi, Suzanne ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Brain activation; Learning; Motivation; Neuroscience; Rewards; Reward circuitry

Indexed keywords

EID: 84958046453     PISSN: 1040726X     EISSN: 1573336X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10648-015-9307-5     Document Type: Review

References (160)

1. Adcock, R. A., Thangavel, A., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Knutson, B., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2006). Reward-motivated learning: Mesolimbic activation precedes memory formation. Neuron, 50, 507–517.
2. Alexander, P. A. (2000). Toward a model of academic development: Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge: The sequel. Educational Researcher, 29, 28–44.
3. Allan, B. M., & Fryer, R. G., Jr. (2011). The power and pitfalls of education incentives (Discussion Paper). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution/Hamilton Project.
4. Anderson, B. A., Laurent, P. A., & Yantis, S. (2011). Value-driven attentional capture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 108, 10367–10371.
5. Arnold, H. J. (1976). Effects of performance feedback and extrinsic reward upon high intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 17, 275–288.
6. Ashby, F. G., Isen, A. M., & Turken, A. U. (1999). A neurophysiological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition. Psychological Review, 106, 529–550.
7. Ashby, F. G., & Maddox, W. T. (2005). Human category learning. Annal Review of Psychology, 56, 149–178.
8. Ashby, F. G., Valentin, V. V., & Turken, A. U. (2002). The effects of positive affect and arousal on working memory and executive attention. In S. Moore & M. Oaksford (Eds.), Emotional cognition: From brain to behaviour (pp. 245–287). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
9. Berridge, K. C. (2012). From prediction error to incentive salience: Mesolimbic computation of reward motivation. European Journal of Neuroscience, 35, 1124–1143.
10. Berridge, K. C., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2011). Building a neuroscience of pleasure and well-being (Review). Psychology of Well-Being: Theory, Research and Practice, 1, 1–3.
11. Berridge, K. C., Robinson, T. E., & Aldridge, I. W. (2009). Dissecting components of reward: 'Liking', 'wanting', and learning. Current Opinion in Pharmacology, 9, 65–73.
12. Breiter, H. C., Aharon, I., Kahneman, D., Dale, A., & Shizgal, P. (2001). Functional imaging of neural responses to expectancy and experience of monetary gains and losses. Neuron, 30, 619–639.
13. Bruer, J. T. (1997). Education and the brain: A bridge too far. Educational Researcher, 26(8), 4–16.
14. Bunzeck, N., Doeller, C. F., Fuentemilla, L., Dolan, R. J., & Duzel, E. (2009). Reward motivation accelerates the onset of neural novelty signals in humans to 85 milliseconds. Current Biology, 19, 1294–1300.
15. Byron, K., & Khazanchi, S. (2012). Rewards and creative performance: A meta-analytic test of theoretically derived hypotheses. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 809–830.
16. Calder, B. J., & Staw, B. M. (1975). Self-perception of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 599–605.
17. Camerer, C. F. (2010). Removing financial incentives demotivates the brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), 107(49), 20849–20850.
18. Cameron, J., Banko, K. M., & Pierce, W. D. (2001). Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues. The Behavior Analyst, 24, 1–44.
19. Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (1994). Reinforcement, reward, and intrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 64, 363–423.
20. Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (1996). The debate about rewards and intrinsic motivation: Protests and accusations do not alter the results. Review of Educational Research, 66, 39–51.
21. Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (2002). Rewards and intrinsic motivation: Resolving the controversy. Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey.
22. Cameron, J., Pierce, W. D., Banko, K. M., & Gear, A. (2005). Achievement-based rewards and intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive mediators. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 641–655.
23. Carlson, J. M., Foti, D., Mujica-Parodi, L. R., Harmon-Jones, E., & Hajcak, G. (2011). Ventral striatal and medial prefrontal BOLD activation is correlated with reward-related electrocortical activity: A combined ERP and fMRI study. NeuroImage, 57, 1608–1616.
24. Carter, M. R., MacInnes, J. J., Huettel, S. A., & Adcock, R. A. (2009). Activation in the VTA and nucleus accumbens increases in anticipation of both gains and losses. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 3, Article 21, 1-15. Retrieved March 13, 2011, from http://www.frontiersin.org/behavioral_neuroscience/10.3389/neuro.08.021.2009/full
25. Casey, B. J., Jones, R. M., & Somerville, L. H. (2011). Braking and accelerating of the adolescent brain. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), 21–33.
26. Choudhury, S., Charman, T., & Blakemore, S. J. (2009). Mentalizing and development during adolescence. In M. de Haan & M. R. Gunnar (Eds.), Handbook of developmental social neuroscience (pp. 159–174). New York: Guilford Press.
27. Cialdini, R. B., Eisenberg, N., Green, B. L., Rhoads, K., & Bator, R. (1998). Undermining the undermining effect of reward on sustained interest. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28, 249–263.
28. Cohen, J. Y., Haesler, S., Vong, L., Lowell, B. B., & Uchida, N. (2012). Neuron-type-specific signals for reward and punishment in the ventral tegmental area. Nature, 482(7383), 85–88.
29. Collins, M. A., & Amabile, T. M. (1999). Motivation and creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 297–312). New York: Cambridge University Press.
30. Cooke, L. J., Chambers, L. C., Añez, E. V., & Wardle, J. (2011). Facilitating or undermining? The effect of reward on food acceptance. A narrative review. Appetite, 57(493), 497.
31. Crone, E. A., & Westenberg, P. M. (2009). Development of the social brain in adolescence. In M. de Haan & M. R. Gunnar (Eds.), Handbook of developmental social neuroscience (pp. 378–396). New York: Guilford Press.
32. Daniel, R., & Pollmann, S. (2010). Comparing the neural basis of monetary reward and cognitive feedback during information-integration category learning. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 47–55.
33. Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105–115.
34. Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum.
35. Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 627–668.
36. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
37. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Motivation, personality, and development within embedded social contexts: An overview of Self-Determination Theory. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 85–111). New York: Oxford University Press.
38. Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M., & Koestner, R. (2001). The pervasive negative effect of rewards on intrinsic motivation: Response to Cameron (2001). Review of Educational Research, 71, 43–51.
39. De Smedt, B., Ansari, D., Grabner, R. H., Hannula, M. M., Schneider, M., & Verschaffel, L. (2010). Cognitive neuroscience meets mathematics education. Educational Research Review, 5, 97–105.
40. Eisenberger, R., & Armeli, S. (1997). Can salient reward increase creative performance without reducing intrinsic creative interest? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 652–663.
41. Eisenberger, R., & Cameron, J. (1996). The detrimental effects of reward: Myth or reality? American Psychologist, 51, 1153–1166.
42. Eisenberger, R., Pierce, W. D., & Cameron, J. (1999). Effects of reward on intrinsic motivation: Negative, neutral, and positive. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 677–691.
43. Eisenberger, R., & Shanock, L. (2003). Rewards, intrinsic motivation, and creativity: A case study of conceptual and methodological isolation. Creativity Research Journal, 15, 121–130.
44. Elliot, A. J. (Ed.). (2008). Handbook of approach and avoidance motivation. New York & Hove, England: Psychology Press/Taylor & Francis Group.
45. Elliott, R., Agnew, Z., & Deakin, J. F. (2008). Medial orbitofrontal cortex codes relative rather than absolute value of financial rewards in humans. European Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 2213–2218.
46. Elliott, R., Newman, J. L., Longe, O. A., & William Deakin, J. F. (2004). Instrumental responding for rewards is associated with enhanced neuronal response in subcortical reward systems. NeuroImage, 21, 984–990.
47. Ernst, M., & Spear, L. P. (2009). Reward systems. In M. de Haan & M. R. Gunnar (Eds.), Handbook of developmental social neuroscience (pp. 324–341). New York: Guilford Press.
48. Fareri, D. S., Martin, L. N., & Delgado, M. R. (2008). Reward-related processing in the human brain: Developmental considerations. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 1191–1211.
49. Filsecker, M., & Hickey, D. T. (2014). A multilevel analysis of the effects of external rewards on elementary students’ motivation, engagement and learning in an educational game. Computers and Education, 75, 136–148.
50. Flaherty, C. F. (1996). Incentive relativity. In J. Gray (Ed.), Problems in the Behavioural Sciences (Vol. 15). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
51. Flowerday, T. L. (2012, April). Choice as a motivator for undergraduate college students: Perceptions and beliefs. In S. E. Hidi (Chair), The motivational benefits and detriments of choosing: Exploring the complexity of choice in educational contexts. Roundtable session conducted at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
52. Fredrickson, B. (2001). The role of positive emotion in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226.
53. Frenzel, A. C., Dicke, A. L., Pekrun, R., & Goetz, T. (2009). Development of mathematics interest in adolescence: Quantitative and qualitative insights. Paper presented at the meeting of the European Association on Learning and Instruction, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
54. Gunnar, M. R., & deHaan, M. (2009). Methods in Social Neuroscience Issues in Studying Development. In M. de Haan & M. R. Gunnar (Eds.), Handbook of developmental social neuroscience (pp. 13–37). New York: Guilford Press.
55. Gruber J.M., Gelman D.B.,and Ranganath C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron, 84(2), 486–496.
56. Harackiewicz, J. M. (2011). I can't explain. In R. M. Azkin (Ed.), Most under-appreciated: 50 prominent social psychologists describe their most unloved work (pp. 185–187). New York: Oxford University Press.
57. Harackiewicz, J. M., & Manderlink, G. (1984). A process analysis of the effects of performance- contingent rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 531–551.
58. Harackiewicz, J. M., Manderlink, G., & Sansone, C. (1984). Rewarding pinball wizardry: Effects of evaluation and cue value on intrinsic interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 287–300.
59. Hennessey, B. A., & Amabile, T. M. (1998). Reward, intrinsic motivation, and creativity. American Psychologist, 53, 674–675.
60. Hickey, C., Chelazzi, L., & Theeuwes, J. (2011). Reward has a residual impact on target selection in visual search, but not on the suppression of distractors. Visual Cognition, 19, 117–128.
61. Hickey, D. T. (2003). Engaged participation versus marginal nonparticipation: A strindently sociocultural approach to achievement motivation. The Elementary School Journal, 103, 401–429.
62. Hidi, S. (2006). Interest: A unique motivational variable. Educational Research Review, 1, 69–82.
63. Hidi, S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2000). Motivating the academically unmotivated: A critical issue for the 21st century. Review of Educational Research, 70, 151–179.
64. Horvitz, J. C. (2000). Mesolimbocortical and nigrostriatal dopamine responses to salient non-reward events. Neuroscience, 96, 651–656.
65. Hsu, M., Bhatt, M., Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., & Camerer, C. F. (2005). Neural systems responding to degrees of uncertainty in human decision making. Science, 310, 1680–1683.
66. Hulleman, C. S., & Barron, K. E. (2010). Teacher motivation and performance pay: Separating myth from reality. Phi Delta Kappan, 91(9), 27–31.
67. Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (2000). When choice is demotivating: Can one desire too much of a good thing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 995–1006.
68. Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (2002). Choice and its consequences: On the costs and benefits of self-determination. In A. Tesser, D. A. Stapel, & J. V. Wood (Eds.), Self and motivation: Emerging psychological perspectives (pp. 71–96). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
69. Izuma, K., Saito, D. N., & Sadato, N. (2008). Processing of Social and Monetary Rewards in the Human Straitum. Neuron, 58(2), 284–294.
70. Jabbar, H. (2011). The behavioural economics of education: New directions for research. Educational Researcher, 40, 446–453.
71. Kable, J. W., & Glimcher, P. W. (2007). The neural correlates of subjective value during intertemporal choice. Nature Neuroscience, 10, 1625–1633.
72. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263-291. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1914185
73. Kang, M. J., Hsu, M., Krajbich, I. M., Loewenstein, G., McClure, S. M., Wang, J. T., & Camerer, C. F. (2009). The wick in the candle of learning: Epistemic curiosity activates reward circuitry and enhances memory. Psychological Science, 20, 963–973.
74. Karniol, R., & Ross, M. (1977). The effects of performance-relevant and performance-irrelevant rewards on motivation. Child Development, 48, 482–487.
75. Kim, S. (2013). Neuro scientific model of motivational process. Frontiers in Psychology, special section p1.
76. Knutson, B., Delgado, M. R., & Phillips, P. E. M. (2008). Representation of subjective value in the striatum. In P. W. Glimcher, C. F. Camerer, E. Fehr, & R. A. Poldrack (Eds.), Neuroeconomics: Decision making and the brain (pp. 389–406). New York: Academic Press.
77. Knutson, B., Fong, G. W., Bennett, S. M., Adams, C. M., & Hommer, D. (2003). A region of mesial prefrontal cortex tracks monetarily rewarding outcomes: Characterization with rapid event-related fMRI. NeuroImage, 18, 263–272.
78. Knutson, B., Westdorp, A., Kaiser, E., & Hommer, D. (2000). fMRI visualization of brain activity during a monetary incentive delay task. NeuroImage, 12, 20–27.
79. Knutson, B., & Wimmer, G. E. (2007). Reward: Neural circuitry for social valuation. In E. Harmon-Jones & P. Winkielman (Eds.), Social neuroscience: Integrating biological and psychological explanations of social behavior (pp. 157–175). New York: Guilford Press.
80. Koepp, M. J., Gunn, R. N., Lawrence, A. D., Cunningham, V. J., Dagher, A., Jones, T., Brooks, D. J., Bench, C. J., & Grasby, P. M. (1998). Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature, 393, 266–268.
81. Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A's, praise, and other bribes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
82. Krebs, R. M., Heipertz, D., Schuetze, H., & Düzel, E. (2011). Novelty increases the mesolimbic functional connectivity of the substantia nigral/ventral tegmental area (SN/VTA) during reward anticipation: Evidence from high-resolution fMRI. NeuroImage, 58, 647–655.
83. Krebs, R. M., Schott, B. H., Schütze, H., & Düzel, E. (2009a). The novelty exploration bonus and its attentional modulation. Neuropsychologia, 47, 2272–2281.
84. Krebs, R. M., Schott, B. H., & Düzel, E. (2009b). Personality traits are differentially associated with patterns of reward and novelty processing in the human substantia nigra/ventral tegmental area. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 103–110.
85. Lee, W., & Reeve, J. (2013). Self-determined, but not non-self-determined, motivation predicts activations in the anterior insular cortex: an fMRI study of personal agency. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(5), 538–545.
86. Lee, W., Reeve, J. (2014). Critical roles of interest in education: Theoretical and empirical advances.In K. Murayama (Chair) Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic Motivation: A Neural Perspective Concurrent Symposia conducted at International Mind, Brain and Educational Society Conference, Fort Worth, Texas.
87. Leotti, L. A., & Delgado, M. R. (2011). The inherent reward of choice. Psychological Science, 22(10), 1310–1318.
88. Lepper, M. R. (1983). Extrinsic reward and intrinsic motivation: Implications for the classroom. In J. Levine & M. Wang (Eds.), Teacher and student perceptions: Implications for learning (pp. 281–317). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
89. Lepper, M. R. (1998). A whole much less than the sum of its parts. American Psychologist, 53, 675–676.
90. Lepper, M. R., & Greene, D. (1975). Turning play into work: Effects of adult surveillance and extrinsic rewards on children's intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 479–486.
91. Lepper, M. R., & Greene, D. (1978). Overjustification research and beyond: Toward a means-end analysis of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In M. R. Lepper & D. Greene (Eds.), The hidden costs of reward: New perspectives on the psychology of human motivation (pp. 109–148). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
92. Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the "overjustification" hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129–137.
93. Lepper, M. R., & Henderlong, J. (2000). Turning "play" into "work" and "work" into "play": 25 years of research on intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. In C. Sansone & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance (pp. 257–307). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
94. Lepper, M. R., Henderlong Corpus, J., & Iyengar, S. S. (2005). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations in the classroom: Age differences and academic correlates. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 184–196.
95. Lepper, M. R., Master, A., & Yow, W. Q. (2008). Intrinsic motivation in education. In M. L. Maehr, M. L. Maehr, S. A. Karabenick, & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Vol. 15. Social psychological perspectives (pp. 521-555) (Series Edth ed.). Bingley, England: Emerald.
96. Linke, J., Kirsch, P., King, A. V., Gass, A., Hennerici, M. G., Bongers, A., & Wessa, M. (2010). Motivational orientation modulates the neural response to reward. NeuroImage, 49, 2618–2625.
97. Ma, Q., Jin, J., Meng, L., & Shen, Q. (2014). Cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychology. NeuroReport, 25(3), 194–198.
98. Martin, L. E., Potts, G. F., Burton, P. C., & Montague, P. R. (2009). Electrophysiological and hemodynamic responses to reward prediction violation. Neuroreport, 20, 1140–1143.
99. Martin-Soelch, C., Leenders, K. L., Chevalley, A.-F., Missimer, J., Künig, G., Magyar, S., Mino, A., & Schultz, W. (2001). Reward mechanisms in the brain and their role in dependence: Evidence from neurophysiological and neuroimaging studies. Brain Research Reviews, 36, 139–149.
100. Mayes, L. C., Magidson, J., Lejuez, C. W., & Nicholls, S. S. (2009). Social relationships as primary rewards: The neurobiology of attachment. In M. de Haan & M. R. Gunnar (Eds.), Handbook of developmental social neuroscience (pp. 342–377). New York: Guilford Press.
101. McBride, W. J., Murphy, J. M., & Ikemoto, S. (1999). Localization of brain reinforcement mechanisms: Intracranial self-administration and intracranial place-conditioning studies. Behavioural Brain Research, 101, 129–152.
102. McClure, S. M., York, M. K., & Montague, P. R. (2004). The neural substrates of reward processing in humans: The modern role of fMRI. Neuroscientist, 10, 260–268.
103. Mitchell, C. P., & Flaherty, C. F. (2005). Differential effects of removing the glucose or saccharin components of a glucose-saccharin mixture in a successive negative contrast paradigm. Physiology and Behavior, 84, 579–583.
104. Mizuno, K., Tanaka, M., Ishii, A., Tanabe, H. C., Onoe, H., Sadato, N., & Watanabe, Y. (2008). The neural basis of academic achievement motivation. NeuroImage, 42, 369–378.
105. Montague, P. R., Dayan, P., & Sejnowski, T. J. (1996). A framework for mesencephalic dopamine systems based on predictive Hebbian learning. Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 1936–1947.
106. Murayama, K., Matsumoto, M., Izuma, K., & Matsumoto, K. (2010). Neural basis of the undermining effect of monetary reward on intrinsic motivation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), 107(49), 20911–20916.
107. Murayama, K., & Kitagami, S. (2013). Consolidation power of extrinsic rewards: reward cues enhance long-term memory for irrelevant past events. Jounral of Experiment Psycology: General. 1-3.
108. Murayama, K., & Kuhbandner, C. (2011). Money enhances memory consolidation – But only boring material. Cognition, 119, 120–124.
109. Murayama, K., Matsumoto, M., Izuma, K., Sugiura, A., Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Matsumoto, K. (2014). How self-determined choice facilitates performance: A key role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex. doi:10.1093/cercor/bht317. ISSN 1460–2199.
110. Nomura, E. M., & Reber, P. J. (2008). A review of medial temporal lobe and caudate contributions to visual category learning. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 279–291.
111. O'Doherty, J. P., Deichmann, R., Critchley, H. D., & Dolan, R. J. (2002). Neural responses during anticipation of a primary taste reward. Neuron, 33, 815–826.
112. O'Doherty, J., Kringelbach, M. L., Rolls, E. T., Hornak, J., & Andrews, C. (2001). Abstract reward and punishment representations in the human orbitofrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 95–102.
113. Olds, J., & Milner, P. (1954). Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of the septal area and other regions of rat brain. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 47, 419–427.
114. Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective neuroscience. New York: Oxford University Press.
115. Panksepp, J. (2003). At the interface between the affective, behavioral and cognitive neurosciences: Decoding the emotional feelings of the brain. Brain and Cognition, 52, 4–14.
116. Patall, E. A. (2012). The Motivational Complexity of Choosing: A Review of Theory and Research. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), TheOxford Handbook of Human Motivation (pp. 248–279). New York: Oxford University Press.
117. Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, C. J. (2008). The Effects of Choice on Intrinsic Motivation and Related Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis of Research Findings, Psychological Bulletin. American Psychological Association, 134(2), 270–300.
118. Pretty, G. H., & Seligman, C. (1984). Affect and the overjustification effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1251–1253.
119. Quintanilha, A. (2010). Promoting curiosity and understanding risk. Keynote address, International Conference on Motivation, Porto, Portugal.
120. Reiss, S. (2005). Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation at 30: Unresolved scientific issues. The Behavior Analyst, 28, 1–14.
121. Reiss, S. (2011). The 40-year debate on motivation. Retrieved November 7, 2011, from Psychology Today's website: http://www.psychologytoday.com/print/78753
122. Reiss, S., & Sushinsky, L. W. (1975). Overjustification, competing responses, and the acquisition of intrinsic interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 1116–1125.
123. Reiss, S., & Sushinsky, L. W. (1976). The competing response hypothesis of decreased play effects: A reply to Lepper and Greene. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 233–244.
124. Renninger, K. A., & Hidi, S. (2011). Revisiting the conceptualization, measurement, and generation of interest. Educational Psychologist, 46, 168–184.
125. Renninger, K. A., & Hidi, S. (In Press). The Power of Interest for Engagement and Motivation. Rouledge Press.
126. Renninger, K. A., & Su, S. (2012). Interest and its development. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Human Motivation (pp. 167–187). New York: Oxford University Press.
127. Rowe, J. B., Eckstein, D., Braver, T., & Owen, A. M. (2008). How does reward expectation influence cognition in the human brain? Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 1980–1992.
128. Rushworth, M. F. S., Noonan, M. P., Boorman, E. D., Walton, M. E. & Behrens T. E. (2011). Frontal Cortex and reward-Guided Learning and Decision-Making. Neuron Rev, 1054-1069.
129. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). When rewards compete with nature: The undermining of intrinsic motivation and self-regulation. In C. Sansone & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance (pp. 13–54). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
130. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2009). Promoting self-determined school engagement: Motivation, learning, and well-being. In K. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 171–196). New York: Routledge.
131. Sansone, C., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1998). "Reality" is complicated. Comment on Eisenberger and Cameron. American Psychologist, 53, 673–674.
132. Schlund, M. W., & Cataldo, M. F. (2005). Integrating functional neuroimaging and human operant research: Brain activation correlated with presentation of discriminative stimuli. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 84, 505–519.
133. Schultz, W. (1998). Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology, 80, 1–27.
134. Schultz, W. (2000). Multiple reward signals in brain. Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 1(3), 199–207.
135. Schultz, W. (2006). Behavioural theories and the neurophysiology of reward. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 87–115.
136. Schultz, W. (2007a). Reward. Scholarpedia, 2(3), 1652.
137. Schultz, W. (2007b). Reward Signals. Scholarpedia, 2(6), 2184.
138. Schultz, W. (2010a). Dopamine signals for reward value and risk: Basic and recent data. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 6, 24.
139. Schultz, W. (2010b). Subjective neuronal coding of reward: Temporal value discounting and risk. European Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 2124–2135.
140. Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science, 275, 1593–1599.
141. Schultz, W., & Dickinson, A. (2000). Neuronal coding of prediction errors. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 23, 473–500.
142. Schunk, D. (2008). An interview with Dale Schunk (Interviewed by G. Sakiz). Educational Psychology Review, 20, 485–491.
143. Seger, C. A. (2008). How do the basal ganglia contribute to categorization? Their roles in generalization, response selection, and learning via feedback. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 265–278.
144. Tauer, John (2009). Different Motivational Strokes for Differentially Motivated Folks. Retrieved June 23, 2009, Psychology Today’s website: http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/goal-posts/200906.
145. Tobler, P. N., Fiorillo, C. D., & Schultz, W. (2005). Adaptive coding of reward value by dopamine neurons. Science, 307, 1642–1645.
146. Tricomi, E. M., Delgado, M. R., & Fiez, J. A. (2004). Modulation of caudate activity by action contingency. Neuron, 41, 281–292.
147. Urdan, Tim (2003). Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Rewards, and Divergent Views of Reality. Eductional Psychology Review, Vol. 15, No. 3.
148. Vansteenkiste, M., Niemiec, C. P., & Soenens, B. (2010). The development of the five mini-theories of self-determination theory: An historical overview, emerging trends, and future directions. In T. C. Urdan & S. A. Karabenick (Eds.), The decade ahead: Theoretical perspectives on motivation and achievement(Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Volume 16) (pp. 105–165). Bingley, England: Emerald Group.
149. Velten, E. (1968). A Laboratory Task for Induction of Mood States. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 6, 473–482.
150. Waelti, P., Dickinson, A., & Schultz, W. (2001). Dopamine responses comply with basic assumptions of formal learning theory. Nature, 412, 43–48.
151. Wiechman, B. (2007). Assessing the durability of the undermining effect: The impact of extrinsic rewards on college students' intrinsic motivation. Unpublished senior thesis, Psychology Department, Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont.
152. Wightman, R. M., & Robinson, D. L. (2002). Transient changes in brain dopamine and their association with "reward.". Journal of Neurochemistry, 82, 721–735.
153. Wise, R. A. (1985). The anhedonia hypothesis: Mark III. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8, 178–186.
154. Wittmann, B. C., Bunzeck, N., Dolan, R. J., & Düzel, E. (2007). Anticipation of novelty recruits reward system and hippocampus while promoting recollection. NeuroImage, 38, 194–202.
155. Wittmann, B. C., Dolan, R. J., & Düzel, E. (2011). Behavioral specifications of reward-associated long-term memory enhancement in humans. Learning and Memory, 18, 296–300.
156. Wittmann, B. C., Schott, B. H., Guderian, S., Frey, J. U., Heinze, H. J., & Düzel, E. (2005). Reward-related fMRI activation of dopaminergic midbrain is associated with enhanced hippocampus-dependent long-term memory formation. Neuron, 45, 459–467.
157. Zimmerman, B. I. (1985). The development of "intrinsic" motivation: A social learning analysis. Annals of Child Development, 2, 117–160.
158. Zink, C. F., Pagnoni, G., Chappelow, J. C., Martin-Skurski, M. E., & Berns, G. S. (2006). Human striatal activation reflects degree of stimulus saliency. NeuroImage, 29, 977–983.
159. Zink, C. F., Pagnoni, G., Martin, M. E., Dhamala, M., & Berns, G. S. (2003). Human striatal response to salient nonrewarding stimuli. Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 8092–8097.
160. Zink, C. F., Pagnoni, G., Martin-Skurski, M. E., Chappelow, J. C., & Berns, G. S. (2004). Human striatal responses to monetary reward depend on saliency. Neuron, 42, 509–517.