Anemia in the neonatal period

Neonatology: A Practical Approach to Neonatal Diseases

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 784-798

  Christensen, Robert D ^a   Ohls, Robin K ^b  

^a INTERMOUNTAIN HEALTHCARE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84955402788     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-88-470-1405-3_103     Document Type: Chapter

References (138)

1. Jopling J, Henry E, Wiedmeier SE, Christensen RD (2009) Reference ranges for hematocrit and blood hemoglobin concentration during the neonatal period: data from a multihospital health care system. Pediatrics 123: e333-e337
2. Christensen RD, Henry E, Jopling J, Wiedmeier SE (2009) The CBC: reference ranges for neonates. Semin Perinatol 33: 3-11
3. Juul SE (2000) Nonerythropoietic roles of erythropoietin in the fetus and neonate. Clin Perinatol 27: 527-541
4. Juul SE, Ledbetter DJ, Joyce AE et al (2001) Erythropoietin acts as a trophic factor in neonatal rat intestine. GUT 49: 182-189
5. Juul SE, Zhao Y, Dame JB et al (2000) Origin and fate of erythropoietin in human milk. Pediatr Res 48: 600-607
6. Kling PJ (2002) Roles of erythropoietin in human milk. Acta Paediatr Suppl 91: 31-35
7. Gassmann M, Keinicke K, Soliz J, Ogunshola OO (2003) Non-erythroid functions of erythropoietin. Adv Exp Med Biol 543: 323-330
8. McPherson RJ, Juul SE (2008) Recent trends in erythropoietin-mediated neuroprotection. Int J Dev Neurosci 26: 103-111
9. Dame C, Juul SE, Christensen RD (2001) The biology of erythropoietin in the central nervous system and its neurotrophic and neuroprotective potential. Biol Neonate 79: 228-235
10. Fauchere JC, Dame C, Vonthein R et al (2008) An approach to using recombinant erythropoietin for neuroprotection in very preterm infants. Pediatrics 122: 375-382
11. Juul SJ, Li Y, Christensen RD (1997) Erythropoietin is present in the cerebrospinal fluid of neonates. J Pediatr 130: 428-433
12. Juul SE, Stallings SA, Christensen RD (1999) Erythropoietin in the cerebrospinal fluid of neonates who sustained CNS injury. Pediatr Res 46: 543-548
13. Li Y, Juul SE, Morris-Winman JA et al (1996) Erythropoietin receptors are expressed in the central nervous system of mid-trimester human fetuses. Pediatr Res 40: 376-381
14. Juul SJ, Li Y, Anderson DK, Christensen RD (1998) Erythropoietin and erythropoietin receptor in the developing human central nervous system. Pediatr Res 43: 40-47
15. Juul SE, Yachnis AT, Christensen RD (1998) Tissue distribution of erythropoietin and erythropoietin receptor in the developing human fetus. Early Hum Dev 52: 235-239
16. Juul SE, McPherson RJ, Farrell F et al (2004) Erytropoietin concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid of nonhuman primates and fetal sheep following high-dose recombinant erythropoietin. Biol Neonate 85: 138-144
17. Beirer R, Peceny MC, Hartenberger CH, Ohls RK (2006) Erythropoietin concentrations and neurodevelopmental outcome in preterm infants. Pediatrics 118: 635-640
18. Ohls RK (2002) Erythropoietin and hypoxia inducible factor-1 expression in the mid-trimester human fetus. Acta Pediatr Suppl 91: 27-30
19. Ohls RK (2000) The use of erythropoietin in neonates. Clin Perinatol 3: 681-696
20. Gairdner D (1952) Blood formation in infancy. Part I. The normal bone marrow. Arch Dis Child 27: 128-133
21. Gairdner D, Marks J, Roscoe JD (1955) Blood formation in infancy. IV. The early anaemias of prematurity. Arch Dis Child 30: 203-211
22. Christensen RD (2000) Expected hematologic values for term and preterm neoantes. In: Hematologic problems of the neonate, 1st edn. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 131-136
23. Oettinger L, Mills WB (1949) Simultaneous capillary and venous hemoglobin determinations in newborn infant. J Pediatr 35: 362-369
24. Linderkamp O (1977) Capillary-venous hematocrit differences in newborn infants. Eur J Pediatr 127: 9-15
25. Bierer R, Roohi M, Peceny C, Ohls RK (2009) Erythropoietin increases reticulocyte counts and maintains hematocrit in neonates requiring surgery. J Pediatr Surg 44: 1540-1545
26. Perrone S, Vezzosi P, Longini M et al (2005) Nucleated red blood cell count in term and preterm newborns: reference values at birth. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neon Ed 90: F174-F175
27. Buonocore G, Perrone S, Gioia D et al (1999) Nucleated red blood cell count at birth as an index of perinatal brain damage. Am J Obstet Gynecol 181: 1500-1505
28. Makela E, Takala TI, Suominen P et al (2008) Hematological parameters in preterm infants from birth to 16 weeks of age with reference to iron balance. Clin Chem Lab Med 46: 551-557
29. Zipursky A (1983) The erythrocyte differential count in newborn infants. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 5: 45-52
30. Mock DM, Bell EF, Lankford GL, Widness JA (2001) Hematocrit correlates well with circulating red blood cell volume in very low birth weight infants. Pediatr Res 50: 525-531
31. Strauss RG, Mock DM, Johnson K et al (2003) Circulating RBC volume, measured with biotinylated RBCs, is superior to the Hct to document the hematologic effects of delayed versus immediate umbilical cord clamping in preterm neonates. Transfusion 43: 1168-1172
32. Pearson HA, Vertrees KM (1961) Site of binding to chromium-51 by hemoglobin. Nature 189: 1019-1021
33. Pearson HA (1967). Life-span of the fetal red blood cell. J Pediatr 70: 166-171
34. Brace RA, Langendorfer C, Song TB, Mock DM (2000) Red blood cell life span in the ovine fetus. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 279: R1196-R1204
35. Ruth V, Widness JA, Clemons G, Raivio JO (1990) Postnatal changes in serum immunoreactive erythropoietin in relation to hypoxia before and after birth. J Pediatr 116: 950-954
36. Kling PJ, Schmidt RL, Roberts RA et al (1996) Serum erythropoietin levels during infancy: associations with erythropoiesis. J Pediatr 128: 791-796
37. Linderkamp O, Nelle M, Kraus M, Zilow EP (1992) The effect of early and late cord-clamping on blood viscosity and other hemorheological parameters in full-term neonates. Acta Paediatr 81: 745-750
38. Linderkamp O (1978) The effect of intra-partum and intra-uterine asphyxia on placental transfusions in premature and full-term infants. Eur J Pediatr 127: 91-99
39. Aladangady N, McHugh S, Aitchison TC et al (2006) Infant's blood volume in a controlled trial of placental transfusion at preterm delivery. Pediatrics 117: 93-98
40. Mercer JS, Vohr BR, McGrath MM et al (2006) Delayed cord clamping in very preterm infants reduces the incidence of intraventricular hemorrhage and late-onset sepsis: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics 117: 1235-1242
41. Strauss RG, Mock DM, Johnson KJ et al (2008) A randomized clinical trial comparing immediate versus delayed clamping of the umbilical cord in preterm infants: short-term clinical and laboratory endpoints. Transfusion 48: 658-665
42. Ruef P, Linderkamp O (1999) Deformability and geometry of neonatal erythrocytes with irregular shapes. Pediatr Res 45: 114-119
43. Matovcik LM (1986) Myosin in adult and neonatal human erythrocyte membranes. Blood 67: 1668-1674
44. Gallagher PG (2000) Disorders of erythrocyte metabolism and shape. In: Christensen RD (ed) Hematologic problems of the neonate. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 224-225
45. Linderkamp O (1986). Deformability and intrinsic material properties of neonatal red blood cells. Blood 67: 1244-1250
46. Bautista ML, Altaf W, Lall R, Wapnir RA (2003) Cord blood red cell osmotic fragility: a comparison between preterm and full-term newborn infants. Early Hum Dev 72: 37-46
47. Oski FA, Komazawa M (1975) Metabolism of the erythrocytes of the newborn infant. Semin Hematol 12: 209-221
48. Oski FA, Smith C (1968) Red cell metabolism in the premature infant. Apparent inappropriate glucose consumption for cell age. Pediatrics 41: 473-482
49. Barretto OC, Nonoyama K, Deutsch AD, Ramos J (1995) Physiological red cell, 2, 3-diphosphoglycerate increase by the sixth hour after birth. J Perinat Med 23: 365-369
50. Soubasi V, Kremenopoulos G, Tsantali C et al (2000) Use of erythropoietin and its effects on blood lactate and 2, 3-diphosphoglycerate in premature neonates. Biol Neonate 78: 281-287
51. van Zoeren-Grobben D, Lindeman JH, Houdkamp E et al (1997) Markers of oxidative stress and antioxidant activity in plasma and erythrocytes in neonatal respiratory distress syndrome. Acta Paediatr 86: 1356-1362
52. Gross RT, Bracci R, Rudolph N et al (1967) Hydrogen peroxide toxicity and detoxification in the erythrocytes of newborn infants. Blood 29: 481-493
53. Buonocore G, Zani S, Sargentini I et al (1998) Hypoxia-induced free iron release in the red cells of newborn infants. Acta Paediatr 87: 77-81
54. Ciccoli L, Rossi V, Leoncini S et al (2004) Iron release, superoxide production and binding of autologous IgG to band 3 dimers in newborn and adult erythrocytes exposed to hypoxia and hypoxia-reoxygenation. Biochim Biophys Acta 1672: 203-213
55. Bard H (2000) Fetal and neonatal hemoglobin structure and function. In: Christensen RD (ed) Hematologic problems of the neonate. WB Saunders, Philadelphia
56. Bard H, Peri KG, Gagnon C (2001) Changes in the G gamma and A gamma-globin mRNA components of fetal hemoglobin during human development. Biol Neonate 80: 26-29
57. Eyssette-Guerreau S, Bader-Meunier B, Garcon L (2006) Infantile pyknocytosis: a cause of haemolytic anaemia of the newborn. Br J Haematol 133: 439-442
58. Christensen RD, Henry E (2010). Hereditary spherocytosis in neonates with hyperbilirubinemia. Pediatrics 125: 120-125
59. Sanchez M, Palacio M, Borrell A (2005) Prenatal diagnosis and management of fetal xerocytosis associated with ascites. Fetal Diagn Ther 20: 402-405
60. Vincente-Gutierrez MP, Gastello-Almazan I, Salvia-Roiges MD (2005) Nonimmune hydrops fetalis due to congenital xerocytosis. J Perinatol 25: 63-65
61. Saada V, Cynober T, Brossard Y (2006) Incidence of hereditary spherocytosis in a population of jaundiced neonates. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 23: 387-397
62. Gulbis B, Ferster A, Cotton F (2006) Neonatal haemoglobinopathy screening: review of a 10-year programme in Brussels. J Med Screen 13: 76-78
63. Stevenson DK, Wong RJ, DeSandre GH, Vreman HJ (2004) A primer on neonatal jaundice. Adv Pediatr 51: 263-288
64. Bhutani VK, Donn SM, Johnson LH (2005) Risk management of severe neonatal hyperbilirubinemia to prevent kernicterus. Clin Perinatol 32: 125-139
65. Geifman-Holtzman O, Wojtowycz M, Kosmos E et al (1997) Female alloimmunization with antibodies known to cause hemolytic disease. Obstet Gynecol 89: 272-275
66. Lipitz S, Many A, Mitrani-Rosenbaum S et al (1998) Obstetric outcome after RhD and Kell testing. Hum Reprod 13: 1472-1475
67. Weiner CP, Widness JA (1996) Decreased fetal erythropoiesis and hemolysis in Kell hemolytic anemia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 174: 547-551
68. Vaughan JI, Manning M, Warwick RM et al (1998) Inhibition of erythroid progenitor cells by anti-Kell antibodies in fetal alloimmune anemia. N Engl J Med 338: 798-803
69. Kozlowski CL, Lee D, Shwe KH et al (1995) Quantification of antic in haemolytic disease of the newborn. Transfus Med 5: 37-42
70. van Dijk BA, Dooren MC, Overbeeke MA (1995) Red cell antibodies in pregnancy: there is no "critical titre. " Transfus Med 5: 199-202
71. May-Wewers J, Kaiser JR, Moore EK et al (2006) Severe neonatal hemolysis due to a maternal antibody to the low-frequency Rh antigen C(w). Am J Perinatol 23: 213-217
72. Kosasa TS, Ebesugawa I, Nakayama RT et al (1993) Massive fetomaternal hemorrhage preceded by decreased fetal movement and a nonreactive fetal heart rate pattern. Obstet Gynecol 82: 711-714
73. Giacoia GP (1997) Severe fetomaternal hemorrhage: a review. Obstet Gynecol Surv 52: 372-380
74. Huissoud C, Divry V, Dupont C et al (2009) Large fetomaternal hemorrhage: prenatal predictive factors for perinatal outcome. Am J Perinatol 26: 227-233
75. Lopriore E, Vandenbussche FP, Tiersma ES et al (1995) Twin-totwin transfusion syndrome: new perspectives. J Pediatr 127: 675-680
76. Dennis LG, Winkler CL (1997) Twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome: aggressive therapeutic amniocentesis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 177: 342-347
77. Dommergues M, Mandelbrot L, Delezoide AL et al (1995) Twinto-twin transfusion syndrome: selective feticide by embolization of the hydropic fetus. Fetal Diagn Ther 10: 26-31
78. De Lia JE, Kuhlmann RS, Harstad TW et al (1995) Fetoscopic laser ablation of placental vessels in severe previable twin-twin transfusion syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 172(4 Part 1): 1202-1208
79. Ville Y, Hyett J, Hecher K et al (1995) Preliminary experience with endoscopic laser surgery for severe twin-twin transfusion syndrome. N Engl J Med 332: 224-227
80. van Heteren CF, Nijhuis JG, Semmekrot BA et al (1998) Risk for surviving twin after fetal death of co-twin in twin-twin transfusion syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 92: 215-219
81. Supski DW, Gurushanthaiah K, Chasen S (2002) The effect of treatment of twin-twin transfusion syndrome on the diagnosis-todelivery interval. Twin Res 5: 1-4
82. Kramer MS, Usher RH, Pollack R et al (1997) Etiologic determinants of abruptio placentae. Obstet Gynecol 89: 221-226
83. Rasmussen S, Irgens LM, Bergsjo P et al (1997) Perinatal mortality and case fatality after placental abruption in, Norway 1967-1991. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 75: 229-234
84. McMahon MJ, Li R, Schenck AP et al (1997) Previous cesarean birth. A risk factor for placenta previa? J Reprod Med 42: 409-412
85. Chelmow D, Andrew DE, Baker ER (1996) Maternal cigarette smoking and placenta previa. Obstet Gynecol 87(5 Part 1): 703-706
86. Chen KH, Konchak P (1998) Use of transvaginal color Doppler ultrasound to diagnose vasa previa. J Am Osteopath Assoc 98: 116-117
87. Deans A, Jauniaux E (1998) Prenatal diagnosis and outcome of subamniotic hematomas. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 11: 319-323
88. Benirschke K (1994) Obstetrically important lesions of the umbilical cord. J Reprod Med 39: 262-272
89. Eddleman KA, Lockwood CJ, Berkowitz GS et al (1992) Clinical significance and sonographic diagnosis of velamentous umbilical cord insertion. Am J Perinatol 9: 123-126
90. Kilani RA, Wetmore J (2006) Neonatal subgaleal hematoma: presentation and outcome-radiological findings and factors associated with mortality. Am J Perinatol 23: 41-48
91. Uchil D, Arulkumaran S (2003) Neonatal subgaleal hemorrhage and its relationship to delivery by vacuum extraction. Obstet Gynecol Surv 58: 687-693
92. Teng FY, Sayre JW (1997) Vacuum extraction: does duration predict scalp injury? Obstet Gynecol 89: 281-285
93. Chadwick LM, Pemberton PJ, Kurinczuk JJ (1996) Neonatal subgaleal haematoma: associated risk factors, complications and outcome. J Paediatr Child Health 32: 228-232
94. Felc Z (1995) Ultrasound in screening for neonatal adrenal hemorrhage. Am J Perinatol 12: 363-366
95. Pinto E, Guignard JP (1995) Renal masses in the neonate. Biol Neonate 68: 175-184
96. Davies MR (1997) Iatrogenic hepatic rupture in the newborn and its management by pack tamponade. J Pediatr Surg 32: 1414-1419
97. Emma F, Smith J, Moerman PH (1992) Subcapsular hemorrhage of the liver and hemoperitoneum in premature infants: report of 4 cases. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 44: 161-164
98. Miele V, Galluzzo M, Patti G et al (1997) Scrotal hematoma due to neonatal adrenal hemorrhage: the value of ultrasonography in avoiding unnecessary surgery. Pediatr Radiol 27: 672-674
99. Nagaya M, Kato J, Niimi N et al (1998) Isolated cavernous hemangioma of the stomach in a neonate. J Pediatr Surg 33: 653-654
100. Abolmakarem H, Tharmaratnum S, Thilaganathan B (2001) Fetal Anemia as a consequence of hemorrhage into an ovarian cyst. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 17: 527-528
101. Berkowitz K, Baxi L, Fox HE (1990) False-negative syphilis screening: the prozone phenomenon, nonimmune hydrops, and diagnosis of syphilis during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 163: 975-977
102. de Jong EP, de Haan TR, Kroes AC (2006) Parvovirus B19 infection in pregnancy. J Clin Virol 36: 1-7
103. Matsuda H, Sakaguchi K, Shibasaki T et al (2005) Intrauterine therapy for parvovirus B19 infected symptomatic fetus using B19 IgGrich high titer gammaglobulin. J Perinat Med 33: 561-563
104. Runsewe-Abiodun IT, Ogunfowora OB, Fetuga BM (2006) Neonatal malaria in Nigeria-a 2 year review. BMC Pediatr 6: 19
105. Shah M, Li Y, Christensen RD (1996) Effects of perinatal zidovudine on hematopoiesis: a comparison of effects on progenitors from human fetuses versus mothers. AIDS 10: 1239-1247
106. Brown MS, Garcia JF, Phibbs RH et al (1984) Decreased response of plasma immunoreactive erythropoietin to "available oxygen" in anemia of prematurity. J Pediatr 105: 793-798
107. Shannon KM, Naylor GS, Torkildson JC et al (1987) Circulating erythroid progenitors in the anemia of prematurity. N Engl J Med 31: 728-733
108. Rhondeau SM, Christensen RD, Ross MP et al (1988) Responsiveness to recombinant human erythropoietin of marrow erythroid progenitors from infants with the "anemia of prematurity. " J Pediatr 112: 935-940
109. Ohls RK, Liechty KW, Turner MC et al (1990) Erythroid "burst promoting activity" in the serum of patients with the anemia of prematurity. J Pediatr 116: 786-789
110. Donato H (2005) Erythropoietin: an update on the therapeutic use in newborn infants and children. Expert Opin Pharmacother 6: 723-734
111. Ohls RK (2002) Erythropoietin treatment in extremely low birth weight infants: blood in versus blood out. J Pediatr 140: 3-6
112. Aher S, Ohlsson A (2006) Late erythropoietin for preventing red blood cell transfusion in preterm and/or low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3: CD004868
113. Ohls RK (2002) Human recombinant erythropoietin in the prevention and treatment of anemia of prematurity. Paediatr Drugs 4: 111-121
114. Bierer R, Peceny MC, Hartenberger CH, Ohls RK (2006) Erythropoietin concentrations and neurodevelopmental outcome in preterm infants. Pediatrics 118: e635-e640
115. Ohls RK, Ehrenkranz RA, Das A (2004) Neurodevelopmental outcome and growth at 18 to 22 months' corrected age in extremely low birth weight infants treated with early erythropoietin and iron. Pediatrics 114: 1287-1291
116. Juul SE (2004) Recombinant erythropoietin as a neuroprotective treatment: in vitro and in vivo models. Clin Perinatol 31: 129-142
117. Warwood TL, Ohls RD, Wiedmeier SE et al (2005) Single-dose darbepoetin administration to anemic preterm neonates J Perinatol 25: 725-730
118. Warwood TL, Ohls RK, Lambert DK et al (2006) Intravenous administration of darbepoetin to NICU patients. J Perinatol 26: 296-300
119. Warwood TL, Ohls RK, Lambert DK et al (2006) Urinary excretion of darbepoetin after intravenous vs. subcutaneous administration to preterm neonates. J Perinatol 26: 636-639
120. Gazda HE, Sieff CA (2006) Recent insights into the pathogenesis of Diamond-Blackfan anaemia. Br J Haematol 135: 149-157
121. Lipton JM, Ellis SR (2009) Diamond-Blackfan anemia: diagnosis, treatment, and molecular pathogenesis. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 23: 261-282
122. Aase JM, Smith DW (1969) Congenital anemia and triphalangeal thumbs: a new syndrome. J Pediatr 74: 471-474
123. Landmann E, Bluetters-Sawatzki R, Schindler D, Gortner L (2004) Fanconi anemia in a neonate with pancytopenia. J Pediatr 145: 125-127
124. Charles JM, Key LL (1998) Developmental spectrum of children with congenital osteopetrosis. J Pediatr 132: 371-374
125. Fasth A (2009) Osteopetrosis-more than only a disease of the bone. Am J Hematol 84: 469-470
126. Pearson HA, Lobel JS, Kocoshis SA et al (1979) A new syndrome of refractory sideroblastic anemia with vacuolization of marrow precursors and exocrine pancreatic dysfunction. J Pediatr 95: 976-984
127. van den Ouweland JM, de Klerk JB, van de Corput MP et al (2000) Characterization of a novel mitochondrial DNA deletion in a patient with a variant of the Pearson marrow-pancreas syndrome. Eur J Hum Genet 8: 195-203
128. Manea EM, Leverger G, Bellmann F et al (2009) Pearson syndrome in the neonatal period: two case reports and review of the literature. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 31: 947-951
129. Bell EF, Strauss RG, Widness JA et al (2005) Randomized trial of liberal versus restrictive guidelines for red blood cell transfusion in preterm infants. Pediatrics 115: 1685-1691
130. Kirpalani H, Whyte RK, Andersen C et al (2006) The Premature Infants in Need of Transfusion (PINT) study: a randomized, controlled trial of a restrictive (low) versus liberal (high) transfusion threshold for extremely low birth weight infants. J Pediatr 149: 301-307
131. Canadian Paediatric Society (2002) Red blood cell transfusions in newborn infants: Revised guidelines. Paediatr Child Health 7: 553-566
132. Haiden N, Klebermass K, Cardona F (2006) A randomized, controlled trial of the effects of adding vitamin B12 and folate to erythropoietin for the treatment of anemia of prematurity. Pediatrics 118: 180-188
133. Chaparro CM, Neufeld LM, Tena Alavez G (2006). Effect of timing of umbilical cord clamping on iron status in Mexican infants: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 367: 1997-2004
134. Philip A (2006) Delayed cord clamping in preterm infants. Pediatrics 117: 1434-1435
135. Rabe H, Alvarez JR, Lawn C (2009) A management guideline to reduce the frequency of blood transfusion in very-low-birth-weight infants. Am J Perinatol 26: 179-183
136. Rabe H, Reynolds G, Diaz-Rossello J (2004) Early versus delayed umbilical cord clamping in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4: CD003248
137. Widness JA, Madan A, Grindeanu LA (2005) Reduction in red blood cell transfusions among preterm infants: results of a randomized trial with an in-line blood gas and chemistry monitor. Pediatrics 115: 1299-1306
138. Ohls RK (2009) Why, when and how should we provide red cell transfusions to neonates? In: Ohls RK, Yoder MC (eds) Hematology, immunology and infections disease. Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia, pp 44-57