Sex-Related Cognitive Profile in Autism Spectrum Disorders Diagnosed Late in Life: Implications for the Female Autistic Phenotype

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

Volumn 46, Issue 1, 2016, Pages 139-154

  Lehnhardt, Fritz Georg ^a   Falter, Christine Michaela ^a   Gawronski, Astrid ^a   Pfeiffer, Kathleen ^a   Tepest, Ralf ^a   Franklin, Jeremy ^a   Vogeley, Kai ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF COLOGNE   (Germany)

^b FORSCHUNGSZENTRUM JÜLICH   (Germany)

Author keywords

Adulthood; Autism spectrum disorder; Cognitive profile; Female autistic phenotype; Processing speed

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; ASSISTED LIVING FACILITY; AUTISM; COGNITION ASSESSMENT; COMORBIDITY; COMPARATIVE STUDY; CONCURRENT SEXUAL PARTNERSHIP; CONSULTATION; CONTROLLED STUDY; DELAYED DIAGNOSIS; DEPRESSION; DISEASE SEVERITY; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FEMALE; FULL SCALE INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT; HUMAN; INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT; INTELLIGENCE TEST; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MENTAL CAPACITY; MENTAL DISEASE; MENTAL HEALTH CARE; PATIENT REFERRAL; PHENOTYPE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SCORING SYSTEM; SELF REPORT; SEX DIFFERENCE; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; TASK PERFORMANCE; VERBAL BEHAVIOR; WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE; AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER; COGNITION; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; ONSET AGE; PSYCHOLOGY; SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT;

ADULT; AGE OF ONSET; AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER; COGNITION; DELAYED DIAGNOSIS; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PHENOTYPE; SEX CHARACTERISTICS; VERBAL BEHAVIOR;

EID: 84953836766     PISSN: 01623257     EISSN: 15733432     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10803-015-2558-7     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Allen, D. N., & Barchard, Kimberly. A. (2009). Identification of a social cognition construct for the WAIS-III. Applied Neuropsychology,16(4), 262–274.
2. Ambery, F. Z., Russell, A. J., Perry, K., Morris, R., & Murphy, D. G. (2006). Neuropsychological functioning in adults with asperger syndrome. Autism,10, 551–564.
3. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). DSM-IV. Washington: American Psychological Associaton.
4. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). DSM 5. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing.
5. Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology: A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence,8(2), 71–82.
6. Andreasen, N. C., et al. (1993). Intelligence and brain structure in normal individuals. The American Journal of Psychiatry,150(1), 130–134.
7. Anon. (2003). Psychological assessment resources. Computerised wisconsin card sort task version 4 (WCST). Psychological assessment ressources.
8. Assouline, S. G., Nicpon, M. F., & Dockery, L. (2012). Predicting the academic achievement of gifted students with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,42(9), 1781–1789.
9. Baird, G., Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., Meldrum, D., et al. (2006). Prevalence of disorders of the autism spectrum in a population cohort of children in South Thames: The special needs and autism project (SNAP). Lancet, 368(1474-547X (Electronic)):210–215.
10. Baron-Cohen, S. (2000). Theory of mind and autism: A review. International Review of Research in Mental Retardation, 23, 169–184.
11. Baron-Cohen, S., O’Riordan, M., Stone, V., Jones, R., & Plaisted, K. (1999). Recognition of faux pas by normally developing children and children with asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,29(5), 407–418.
12. Baron-Cohen, S., Richler, J., Bisarya, D., Gurunathan, N., & Wheelwright, S. (2003). The systemizing quotient: An investigation of adults with asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences,358(1430), 361–374.
13. Baron-Cohen, S., Scott, F. J., Allison, C., Williams, J., Bolton, P., Matthews, F. E., et al. (2009). Prevalence of autism-spectrum conditions: UK school-based population study. The British Journal of Psychiatry,194(6), 500–509.
14. Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,34(2), 163–175.
15. Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I. (2001a). The ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ test revised version: A study with normal adults, and adults with asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,42(2), 241–251.
16. Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001b). The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): Evidence from asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,31(1), 5–17.
17. Beck, A., Ward, C., Mendelson, M., Mock, M., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry,4, 561–571.
18. Begeer, S., Mandell, D., Wijnker-Holmes, B., Venderbosch, S., Rem, D., Stekelenburg, F., et al. (2013). Sex differences in the timing of identification among children and adults with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,43(5), 1151–1156.
19. Begeer, S., Wierda, M., Scheeren, A. M., Teunisse, J. P., Koot, H. M., & Geurts, H. M. (2014). Verbal fluency in children with autism spectrum disorders: Clustering and switching strategies. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 18(8):1014–1018.
20. Black, D. O., Wallace, G. L., Sokoloff, J. L., & Kenworthy, L. (2009). Brief report: IQ split predicts social symptoms and communication abilities in high-functioning children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,39(11), 1613–1619.
21. Bölte, S., Duketis, E., Poustka, F., & Holtmann, M. (2011). Sex differences in cognitive domains and their clinical correlates in higher-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice,15(4), 497–511.
22. Brugha, T. S., McManus, S., Bankart, J., Scott, F., Purdon, S., Smith, J., et al. (2011). Epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders in adults in the community in England. Archives of General Psychiatry,68(5):459–465. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1305669/.
23. Burger-Veltmeijer, A. E. J., Minnaert, A. E. M. G., Van, Els. J., & den Bosch, Houten.-Van. (2011). The co-occurrence of intellectual giftedness and autism spectrum disorders. Educational Research Review,6(1), 67–88.
24. CDC. (2012). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders–autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 14 sites, United States, 2008. Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Surveillance Summaries (Washington, DC: 2002),61(3):1–19.
25. Crawford, J. R., Moore, J. W., & Cameron, I. M. (1992). Verbal fluency: A NART-based equation for the estimation of premorbid performance. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology/The British Psychological Society,31(Pt 3), 327–329.
26. Dworzynski, K., Ronald, A., Bolton, P., & Happé, F. (2012). How different are girls and boys above and below the diagnostic threshold for autism spectrum disorders? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,51(8), 788–797.
27. Eack, S. M., et al. (2013). Cognitive enhancement therapy for adults with autism spectrum disorder: Results of an 18-month feasibility study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,43(12), 2866–2877.
28. Fombonne, E. (2005). Epidemiology of autistic disorder and other pervasive developmental disorders. J Clinical Psychiatry,66(Suppl 1(0160-6689 (Print))):3–8.
29. Freitag, C. M., et al. (2007). Evaluation Der Deutschen Version Des Autismus-Spektrum-Quotienten (AQ)—Die Kurzversion AQ-K = German adaptation of the autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): Evaluation and short version AQ-K. Zeitschrift fur Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie,36(4), 280–289.
30. Frith, U. (2012). Why we need cognitive explanations of autism. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,65(11), 2073–2092.
31. Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (2012). Mechanisms of social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology,63, 287–313.
32. García-Villamisar, D., & Hughes, C. (2007). Supported employment improves cognitive performance in adults with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,51(Pt 2), 142–150.
33. Geurts, H. M., & Jansen, M. D. (2012). A retrospective chart study: The pathway to a diagnosis for adults referred for ASD assessment. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice,16(3):299–305.
34. Geurts, H. M., & Vissers, M. E. (2012). Elderly with autism: Executive functions and memory. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,42(5), 665–675.
35. Ghaziuddin, M., & Mountain-Kimchi, K. (2004). Defining the intellectual profile of asperger syndrome: Comparison with high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,34, 279–284.
36. Goldstein, G., et al. (2008). The structure of intelligence in children and adults with high functioning autism. Neuropsychology,22(3), 301–312.
37. Guénolé, F., et al. (2013). Behavioral profiles of clinically referred children with intellectual giftedness. BioMed Research International,2013, 540153.
38. Happe, F., & Frith, U. (2006). The weak coherence account: Detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,36(1), 5–25.
39. Head, A. M., McGillivray, J., & Stokes, M. (2014). Gender differences in emotionality and sociability in children with autism spectrum disorders. Molecular Autism,5(1), 19.
40. Hedvall, Å., et al. (2013). Autism, processing speed, and adaptive functioning in preschool children. The Scientific World Journal,2013, 158263.
41. Hill, E. L. (2004). Executive dysfunction in autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences,8(1364–6613 (Print) LA—eng PT–Journal Article PT—Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t PT—Review SB—IM):26–32.
42. Hofvander, B., et al. (2009). Psychiatric and psychosocial problems in adults with normal-intelligence autism spectrum disorders. BMC Psychiatry,9, 35.
43. Hogarty, G. E., et al. (2004). Cognitive enhancement therapy for schizophrenia: Effects of a 2-year randomized trial on cognition and behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry,61(9), 866–876.
44. Holdnack, J., Goldstein, G., & Drozdick, L. (2011). Social perception and WAIS-IV performance in adolescents and adults diagnosed with asperger’s syndrome and autism. Assessment,18(2), 192–200.
45. Holtmann, M., Bolte, S., & Poustka, F. (2007). Autism spectrum disorders: Sex differences in autistic behaviour domains and coexisting psychopathology. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology,49, 361–366.
46. Howlin, P. (2003). Outcome in high-functioning adults with autism with and without early language delays: Implications for the differentiation between autism and asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,33, 3–13.
47. Kail, R., & Salthouse, T. A. (1994). Processing speed as a mental capacity. Acta Psychologica,86(2–3), 199–225.
48. Kalbe, E., Brand, M., Fleck, S., & Kessler, J. (2002). Zur Fraktionierung Des ToM-Konstruktes: Theoretische Überlegungen, Testverfahren Und Erste Ergebnisse. In M. Baumann, A. Keinath, & J. Krems (Eds.), Experimentelle psychologie. Regensburg: Roderer.
49. Kalbfleisch, M. L., & Loughan, A. R. (2012). Impact of IQ discrepancy on executive function in high-functioning autism: Insight into twice exceptionality. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,42(3), 390–400.
50. Kenworthy, L., Yerys, B. E., Weinblatt, R., Abrams, D. N., & Wallace, G. L. (2013). Motor demands impact speed of information processing in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychology,27(5), 529–536.
51. Kim, Y. S., et al. (2011). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in a total population sample. The American Journal of Psychiatry,168(9), 904–912.
52. Kirkovski, M., Enticott, P. G., & Fitzgerald, P. B. (2013). A review of the role of female gender in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,43, 2584–2603. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1811-1.
53. Kleinhans, N., Akshoomoff, N., & Delis, D. C. (2005). Executive functions in autism and asperger’s disorder: Flexibility, fluency, and inhibition. Developmental Neuropsychology,27, 379–401.
54. Klin, A., Volkmar, F. R., Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Rourke, B. P. (1995). Validity and neuropsychological characterization of asperger syndrome: Convergence with nonverbal learning disabilities syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines,36(7), 1127–1140.
55. Klin, A., et al. (2007). Social and communication abilities and disabilities in higher functioning individuals with autism spectrum disorders: The Vineland and the ADOS. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,37(4), 748–759.
56. Knickmeyer, R. C., Wheelwright, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. B. (2008). Sex-typical play: Masculinization/defeminization in girls with an autism spectrum condition. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,38(6), 1028–1035.
57. Koyama, T., Kamio, Y., Inada, N., & Kurita, H. (2009). Sex differences in WISC-III profiles of children with high-functioning pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,39(1), 135–141.
58. Koyama, T., Tachimori, H., Osada, H., Takeda, T., & Kurita, H. (2007). Cognitive and symptom profiles in asperger’s syndrome and high-functioning autism. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences,61(1), 99–104.
59. Kreiser, N. L., & White, S. W. (2013). ASD in females: Are we overstating the gender difference in diagnosis? Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review,17(1), 67–84.
60. Lai, M.-C., Lombardo, M. V., Pasco, G., Ruigrok, A. N., Wheelwright, S. J., Sadek, S. A., et al. (2011). A behavioral comparison of male and female adults with high functioning autism spectrum conditions. PLoS ONE,6(6), e20835.
61. Lai, M. C., Lombardo, M. V., Suckling, J., Ruigrok, A. N., Chakrabarti, B., Ecker, C., et al. (2013). Biological sex affects the neurobiology of autism. Brain,136(9), 2799–2815.
62. Lai, M.-C., et al. (2012). Cognition in males and females with autism: Similarities and differences. PLoS ONE,7(10), e47198.
63. Lehnhardt, F. G., Gawronski, A., Volpert, K., Schilbach, L., Tepest, R., Huff, W., et al. (2011). Autism spectrum disorders in adulthood: Clinical and neuropsychological findings of aspergers syndrome diagnosed late in life. Fortschritte Neurologie-Psychiatrie,79(1439-3522 (Electronic)):290–297.
64. Lehnhardt, F. G., Gawronski, A., Volpert, K., Schilbach, L., Tepest, R., & Vogeley, K. (2012). Psychosocial functioning of adults with late diagnosed autism spectrum disorders—A Retrospective Study. Fortschritte der Neurologie-Psychiatrie,80(2), 88–97.
65. Lehnhardt, F.-G., et al. (2013). The investigation and differential diagnosis of asperger syndrome in adults. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International,110(45), 755–763.
66. Lemon, J. M., Gargaro, B., Enticott, P. G., & Rinehart, N. J. (2011). Executive functioning in autism spectrum disorders: A gender comparison of response inhibition. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,41(3), 352–356.
67. Leyfer, O. T., et al. (2006). Comorbid psychiatric disorders in children with autism: Interview development and rates of disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,36(7), 849–861.
68. Loonstra, A. S., Tarlow, A. R., & Sellers, A. H. (2001). COWAT metanorms across age, education, and gender. Applied Neuropsychology,8(3), 161–166.
69. Lopez, B. R., Lincoln, A. J., Ozonoff, S., & Lai, Z. (2005). Examining the relationship between executive functions and restricted, repetitive symptoms of autistic disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,35(4), 445–460.
70. Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism diagnostic interview-revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,24, 659–685.
71. Lord, C., et al. (2000). The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,30, 205–223.
72. Lugnegård, T., Hallerbäck, M. U., & Gillberg, C. (2011). Psychiatric comorbidity in young adults with a clinical diagnosis of asperger syndrome. Research in Developmental Disabilities,32(5), 1910–1917.
73. Mandy, W., et al. (2012). Sex differences in autism spectrum disorder: Evidence from a large sample of children and adolescents. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,42(7), 1304–1313.
74. Martens, M. A., Wilson, S. J., & Reutens, D. C. (2008). Research review: Williams syndrome: A critical review of the cognitive, behavioral, and neuroanatomical phenotype. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines,49(6), 576–608.
75. May, T., Cornish, K., & Rinehart, N. J. (2012). Gender profiles of behavioral attention in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders. doi:10.1177/1087054712455502.
76. Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2001). Non-significance of early speech delay in children with autism and normal intelligence and implications for DSM-IV asperger’s disorder. Autism,5(1), 81–94.
77. Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2004). Similarities and differences in wechsler intelligence scale for children-third edition (WISC-III) profiles: Support for subtest analysis in clinical referrals. The Clinical Neuropsychologist,18(4), 559–572.
78. Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2008). WISC-IV and WIAT-II profiles in children with high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,38(3), 428–439.
79. Memari, A. H., et al. (2013). Cognitive flexibility impairments in children with autism spectrum disorders: Links to age, gender and child outcomes. Research in Developmental Disabilities,34(10), 3218–3225.
80. Minshew, N. J., Goldstein, G., & Siegel, D. J. (1997). Neuropsychologic functioning in autism: Profile of a complex information processing disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society,3(4), 303–316.
81. Mottron, L., Jake, J. A., Burack, M. D., Soulières, I., & Hubert, B. (2006). Enhanced perceptual functioning in the development of autism. The Development of Autism: Perspectives from Theory and Research,36, 27–43.
82. Muth, A., Hönekopp, J., & Falter, C. M. (2014). Visuo-spatial performance in autism: A meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,44(12), 3245–3263.
83. Nakahachi, T., et al. (2006). Discrepancy of performance among working memory-related tasks in autism spectrum disorders was caused by task characteristics, apart from working memory, which could interfere with task execution. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences,60(3), 312–318.
84. Nicholas, J. S., et al. (2008). Prevalence and characteristics of children with autism-spectrum disorders. Annals of Epidemiology,18(2), 130–136.
85. Noterdaeme, M., Wriedt, E., & Höhne, C. (2010). Asperger’s syndrome and high-functioning autism: Language, motor and cognitive profiles. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,19(6), 475–481.
86. Nyden, A., Hjelmquist, E., & Gillberg, C. (2000). Autism spectrum and attention-deficit disorders in girls. Some neuropsychological aspects. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,9(3), 180–185.
87. Oliveras-Rentas, R. E., Kenworthy, L., Roberson, R. B., Martin, A., & Wallace, G. L. (2012). WISC-IV profile in high-functioning autism spectrum disorders: Impaired processing speed is associated with increased autism communication symptoms and decreased adaptive communication abilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,42(5), 655–664.
88. Ozonoff, S., & Jensen, J. (1999). Brief report: Specific executive function profiles in three neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,29(2), 171–177.
89. Pillilng, S., Baron-Cohen, S., Megnin-Viggars, O., Lee, R., Taylor, C., & Guideline Development Group. (2012). Recognition, referral, diagnosis, and management of adults with autism: Summary of NICE guidance. British Medical Journal,344, e4082. doi:10.1136/bmj.e4082.
90. Pilowsky, T., Yirmiya, N., Shulman, C., & Dover, R. (1998). The autism diagnostic interview-revised and the childhood autism rating scale: Differences between diagnostic systems and comparison between genders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,28(2), 143–151.
91. Rivet, T. T., & Matson, J. L. (2011). Review of gender differences in core symptomatology in autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders,5(3), 957–976.
92. Robinson, E. B., Lichtenstein, P., Anckarsäter, H., Happé, F., & Ronald, A. (2013). Examining and Interpreting the female protective effect against autistic behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,110(13), 5258–5262.
93. Roeyers, H., Buysse, A., Ponnet, K., & Pichal, B. (2001). Advancing advanced mind-reading tests: Empathic accuracy in adults with a pervasive developmental disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines,42(2), 271–278.
94. Rosenthal, M., Wallace, G. L., Lawson, R., Wills, M. C., Dixon, E., Yerys, B. E., et al. (2013). Impairments in real-world executive function increase from childhood to adolescence in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychology,27(1), 13–18.
95. Russo, N., Flanagan, T., Larocci, G., Berringer, D., Zelazo, P. D., Burack, J. A., et al. (2007). Deconstructing executive deficits among persons with autism: Implications for cognitive neuroscience. Brain and Cognition,65(1), 77–86.
96. Ryden, G., Ryden, E., & Hetta, J. (2008). Borderline personality disorder and autism spectrum disorder in females—A Cross-Sectional Study. Clinical Neuropsychiatry,5(1), 22–30.
97. Sachse, M., Schlitt, S., Hainz, D., Ciaramidaro, A., Schirman, S., Walter, H., et al. (2013). Executive and visuo-motor function in adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,43(5), 1222–1235.
98. Sinzig, J., Morsch, D., Bruning, N., Schmidt, M. H., & Lehmkuhl, G. (2008). Inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning in autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid ADHD-symptoms. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health,2(1), 4.
99. Snow, W. G., & Weinstock, J. (1990). Sex differences among non-brain-damaged adults on the wechsler adult intelligence scales: A review of the literature. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology,12(6), 873–886.
100. Solomon, M., Miller, M., Taylor, S. L., Hinshaw, S. P., & Carter, C. S. (2012). Autism symptoms and internalizing psychopathology in girls and boys with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,42(1), 48–59.
101. South, M., Ozonoff, S., & McMahon, W. M. (2007). The relationship between executive functioning, central coherence, and repetitive behaviors in the high-functioning autism spectrum. Autism,11, 437–451.
102. Spek, A., Schatorje, T., Scholte, E., & Berckelaer-Onnes, I. (2009). Verbal fluency in adults with high functioning autism or asperger syndrome. Neuropsychologia,47, 652–656.
103. Spek, A. A., Scholte, E. M., & Berckelaer-Onnes, I. A. (2008). Brief report: The use of WAIS-III in adults with HFA and asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,38, 782–787.
104. Spek, A. A., Scholte, E. M., & Van Berckelaer-Onnes, I. A. (2010). Theory of mind in adults with HFA and asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,40(3), 280–289.
105. Szatmari, P., Bryson, S. E., Boyle, M. H., Streiner, D. L., & Duku, E. (2003). Predictors of outcome among high functioning children with autism and asperger syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines,44(4), 520–528.
106. Szatmari, P., Liu, X. Q., Goldberg, J., Zwaigenbaum, L., Paterson, A. D., Woodbury-Smith, M., et al. (2012). Sex differences in repetitive stereotyped behaviors in autism: Implications for genetic liability. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics: the Official Publication of the International Society of Psychiatric Genetics, 159B(1), 5–12.
107. Tombaugh, T. N. (2004). Trail making test A and B: Normative data stratified by age and education. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology,19(2), 203–214.
108. Travers, B. G., et al. (2014). Longitudinal processing speed impairments in males with autism and the effects of white matter microstructure. Neuropsychologia,53, 137–145.
109. Turner, M. A. (1999). Generating novel ideas: Fluency performance in high-functioning and learning disabled individuals with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,40, 189–201.
110. Van Wijngaarden-Cremers, P. J. M., van Eeten, E., Groen, W. B., Van Deurzen, P. A., Oosterling, I. J., & Van der Gaag, R. J. (2014). Gender and age differences in the core triad of impairments in autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,44(3), 627–635.
111. Volkmar, F. R., Szatmari, P., & Sparrow, S. S. (1993). Sex differences in pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,23(4), 579–591.
112. Wechsler, D. (1997). WAIS–III administration and scoring manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
113. Werling, D. M., & Geschwind, D. H. (2013). Sex differences in autism spectrum disorders. Current Opinion in Neurology,26(2), 146–153.
114. Woodbury-Smith, M. R., Robinson, J., Wheelwright, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2005). Screening adults for asperger syndrome using the AQ: A preliminary study of its diagnostic validity in clinical practice. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,35(3), 331–335.
115. World Health Organization. (1992). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. International Classification,10, 1–267.