Why mass incarceration matters: Rethinking crisis, decline, and transformation in postwar American history

Journal of American History

Volumn 97, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 705-736

  Thompson, Heather Ann ^a  

^a TEMPLE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84947785329     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: 19452314     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jahist/97.3.703     Document Type: Article

References (170)

1. Heather West and William J. Sabol, "Prisoners in 2007," Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, (Dec. 2008), http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/p07.pdf
2. Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York, 2010), 195.
3. Edward L. Ayers, Vengeance and Justice: Crime and Punishment in the 19th-Century American South (New York, 1984)
4. Mary Ellen Curtin, Black Prisoners and Their World, Alabama, 1865-1900 (Charlottesville, 2000)
5. Alex Lichtenstein, Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South (New York, 1996)
6. David M. Oshinsky, "Worse Than Slavery": Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice (New York, 1997)
7. Karin Shapiro, A New South Rebellion: The Battle against Convict Labor in the Tennessee Coalfields, 1871-1896 (Chapel Hill, 1998)
8. Talitha L. LeFlouria, "Convict Women and Their Quest for Humanity: Examining Patterns of Race, Class, and Gender in Georgia's Convict Lease and Chain Gang Systems, 1865-1917" (Ph.D. diss., Howard University, 2009).
9. Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America (1991; Jackson, 2003), 3.
10. Khalil Gibran Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Cambridge, Mass., 2010)
11. Jeffery Adler, First in Violence, Deepest in Dirt: Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920 (Cambridge, Mass., 2006)
12. Kali Gross, Colored Amazons: Crime, Violence, and Black Women in the City of Brotherly Love, 1880-1910 (Durham, 2006)
13. Cheryl Hicks, Talk with You like a Woman: African American Women, Justice, and Reform in New York, 1890-1935 (Chapel Hill, 2010)
14. Rebecca M. McLennan, The Crisis of Imprisonment: Protest, Politics, and the Making of the American Penal State, 1776-1941 (New York, 2008)
15. Lawrence M. Friedman, Crime and Punishment in American History (New York, 1993).
16. Donna Murch, Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California (Chapel Hill, 2010)
17. Robert Chase, "Civil Rights on the Cell Block: Race, Reform, and Violence in Texas Prisons and the Nation, 1945-1990" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 2009)
18. Norwood Henry Andrews III, "Sunbelt Justice: Politics, the Professions, and the History of Sentencing and Corrections in Texas since 1968" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, Austin, 2007)
19. Volker Janssen, "Convict Labor, Civic Welfare: Rehabilitation in California's Prisons, 1941-1971" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, San Diego, 2005)
20. Volker Janssen, "When the 'Jungle' Met the Forest: Public Work, Civil Defense, and Prison Camps in Postwar California," Journal of American History, 96 (Dec. 2009), 702-26
21. Heather McCarty, "From Con-Boss to Gang Lord: The Transformation of Social Relations in California Prisons, 1943-1983" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2004)
22. Staughton Lynd, Lucasville: The Untold Story of a Prison Uprising (Philadelphia, 2004)
23. Robert Perkinson, Texas Tough: The Rise of America's Prison Empire (New York, 2010).
24. Mona Lynch, Sunbelt Justice: Arizona and the Transformation of American Punishment (Stanford, 2009)
25. Ruth Wilson Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (Berkeley, 2007)
26. Christian Parenti, Lockdown America: Police and Prisons in the Age of Crisis (New York, 2000)
27. Marie Gottshaulk, The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America (New York, 2006)
28. Jonathan Simon, Governing through Crime: How the War on Crime Transformed American Democracy and Created a Culture of Fear (New York, 2009)
29. Glenn C. Loury, ed., Race, Incarceration, and American Values (Cambridge, Mass., 2008)
30. Mary Louise Frampton, Ian Haney López, and Jonathan Simon, eds., After the War on Crime: Race, Democracy, and a New Reconstruction (New York, 2008)
31. David Garland, The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society (Chicago, 2002)
32. Bruce Western, Punishment and Inequality in America (New York, 2007)
33. Todd Clear, Imprisoning Communities: How Mass Incarceration Makes Disadvantaged Neighborhoods Worse (New York, 2009)
34. Loïc Wacquant, Prisons of Poverty (Minneapolis, 2009)
35. Vesla Weaver, "Frontlash: Race and the Development of Punitive Crime Policy," Studies in American Political Development, 21 (Fall 2007), 230-65.
36. Alison Isenburg, Downtown America: A History of the Place and the People Who Made It (Chicago, 2005).
37. Fred Siegel, The Future Once Happened Here: New York, D.C., L.A., and the Fate of America's Big Cities (New York, 2000).
38. Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996)
39. Matthew Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton, 2005)
40. Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Chicago, 1998)
41. Wendell Pritchett, Brownsville, Brooklyn: Blacks, Jews, and the Changing Face of the Ghetto (Chicago, 2002)
42. Amanda Seligman, Block by Block: Neighborhoods and Public Policy on Chicago's West Side (Chicago, 2005)
43. Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, 2004)
44. Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York, 1987)
45. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961; New York, 1992)
46. Kevin M. Kruse and Thomas J. Sugrue, eds., The New Suburban History (Chicago, 2006)
47. Kevin M. Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism (Princeton, 2005)
48. David M. P. Freund, Colored Property: State Policy and White Racial Politics in Suburban America (Chicago, 2008).
49. Julilly Kohler-Hausmann, "'The Attila the Hun Law': New York's Rockefeller Drug Laws and the Making of the Punitive State," Journal of Social History, 44 (Fall 2010), 76.
50. Vanessa Barker, The Politics of Imprisonment: How the Democratic Process Shapes the Way America Punishes Offenders (New York, 2009), 149.
51. David F. Weiman and Christopher Weiss, "The Origins of Mass Incarceration in New York State: The Rockefeller Drug Laws and the Local War on Drugs," in Do Prisons Make Us Safer? The Benefits and Costs of the Prison Boom, ed. Steven Raphael and Michael A. Stoll (New York, 2009), 89.
52. Heather Ann Thompson, "All across the Nation: Urban Black Activism, North and South, 1965-1975," in African American Urban History since World War II, ed. Kenneth L. Kusmer and Joe W. Trotter (Chicago, 2009), 181-202.
53. Aaron D. Wilson, "Rockefeller Drug Laws Information Sheet," prdi: Partnership for Responsible Drug Information, http://www.prdi.org/rocklawfact.html.
54. Tina L. Dorsey and Priscilla Middleton, "Drug and Crime Facts," 2007, U.S. Department of Justice: Bureau of Justice Statistics, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/dcf.pdf.
55. William J. Sabol et al., "The Influences of Truth-in-Sentencing Reforms on Changes in States' Sentencing Practices and Prison Populations," April 1, 2002, Urban Institute, http://www.urban.org/publications/410470.html.
56. Jonathan Erlen and Joseph F. Spillane, eds., Federal Drug Control: The Evolution of Policy and Practice (Binghamton, 2004).
57. Devah Pager, Marked: Race, Crime, and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration (Chicago, 2007), 17.
58. Solomon Moore, "Number of Life Terms Hits Record," New York Times, July 22, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/23/us/23sentence.html.
59. Stephanie Chen, "Teens Locked Up for Life without a Second Chance," April 8, 2009, cnn, http://www.cnn.com/2009/CRIME/04/08/teens.life.sentence/index.html.
60. Sean Nicholson-Crotty, Zachary Birchmeier, and David Valentine, "Exploring the Impact of School Discipline on Racial Disproportion in the Juvenile Justice Systems," Social Science Quarterly, 90 (Dec. 2009), 1003-18.
61. Dollie Walker, Arthur L. Stinchcombe, and Mary S. McDill, "School Desegregation in Baltimore," Aug. 1967, report BR-6-1610, eric: Education Resources Information Center, http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED013168.pdf.
62. Bob Herbert, "6-Year-Olds Under Arrest," New York Times, April 9, 2007, http://select.nytimes.com/2007/04/09/opinion/09herbert.html?_r=1.
63. Richard E. Redding, "Juvenile Transfer Laws: An Effective Deterrent to Delinquency?," Juvenile Justice Bulletin (Aug. 2008).
64. Tony Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1977).
65. Mary Frances Berry, ed., Police Practices and Civil Rights in New York City: A Report of the United States Commission on Civil Rights (Washington, 2000)
66. Harry G. Levine and Deborah Peterson Small, "Marijuana Arrest Crusade: Racial Bias and Police Policy in New York City, 1997-2007," April 2008, New York Civil Liberties Union, http://www.nyclu.org/files/MARIJUANA-ARREST-CRUSADE_Final.pdf, p. 25.
67. Ray Rivera, Al Baker, and Janet Roberts, "A Few Blocks, 4 Years, 52,000 Police Stops,"New York Times, July 12, 2010, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E04E5DF173AF931A25754C0A9669D8B63.
68. Andrew Golub, Bruce D. Johnson, and Eloise Dunlap, "The Race/Ethnicity Disparity in Misdemeanor Marijuana Arrests in New York City," Criminal Public Policy, 6 (no. 1, 2007), 131-64.
69. Jeffery Fagan, Vivian West, and Jan Holland, "Reciprocal Effects of Crime and Incarceration in New York City Neighborhoods," Fordham Urban Law Journal, 30 (2003), 1551-602.
70. Amy L. Solomon, Gillian L. Thomson, and Sinead Keegan, "Prisoner Reentry in Michigan," Oct. 1, 2004, Urban Institute, http://www.urban.org/uploadedPDF/411172_Prisoner_Reentry_MI.pdf.
71. Peter Wagner, "Importing Constituents: Prisoners and Political Clout in New York," April 22, 2002, Prison Policy Initiative, http://www.prisonpolicy.org/importing/
72. Jennifer Gonnerman, "Million-Dollar Blocks: The Neighborhood Costs of America's Prison Boom," Village Voice, Nov. 24, 2004.
73. Christopher J. Mumola, "Incarcerated Parents and Their Children," Aug. 2000, U.S. Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/iptc.pdf
74. Nell Bernstein, All Alone in the World: Children of the Incarcerated (New York, 2005).
75. Beth E. Richie, "The Social Impact of Mass Incarceration on Women," in Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment, ed. Marc Mauer and Meda Chesney-Lind (New York, 2002), 139.
76. Jennifer Fahey, Cheryl Roberts, and Len Engel, "Employment of Ex-offenders: Employer Perspectives," Oct. 31, 2006, Crime and Justice Institute, http://www.cjinstitute.org/files/ex_offenders_employers_12-15-06.pdf.
77. Bruce Western and Katherine Beckett, "How Unregulated Is the U.S. Labor Market? The Penal System as a Labor Market Institution," American Journal of Sociology, 104 (Jan. 1999), 1031.
78. Wil S. Hylton, "Sick on the Inside: Correctional hmos and the Coming Prison Plague," in Prison Profiteers: Who Makes Money from Mass Incarceration, ed. Tara Herivel and Paul Wright (New York, 2008), 179-203.
79. Ronald Braithwaite, Theodore M. Hammett, Robert M. Mayberry, eds., Prisons and aids: A Public Health Challenge (San Francisco, 1996)
80. Rucker C. Johnson and Steven Raphael, "The Effects of Male Incarceration Dynamics on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Infection Rates among African American Women and Men," Journal of Law and Economics, 52 (May 2009), 251-93.
81. Sarah Valway, Robert Greifinger, and Mark Papania, "Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in the New York Prison System, 1990-1991," Journal of Infectious Diseases, 170 (July 1994)
82. Robert Greifinger, Public Health behind Bars: From Prisons to Communities (New York, 2009).
83. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Handbook of Labor Statistics, Bulletin 2070 (Washington, 1980).
84. Nelson Lichtenstein, State of the Union: A Century of American Labor (Princeton, 2002)
85. Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Race, Economic Policy, and the Decline of Liberalism (Chapel Hill, 1998)
86. Jefferson Cowie and Joseph Heathcott, eds., Beyond the Ruins: The Meanings of Deindustrialization (Ithaca, 2003)
87. Jefferson Cowie, Capital Moves: rca's Seventy-Year Quest for Cheap Labor (Ithaca, 1999).
88. Douglas A. Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (New York, 2008).
89. Murray Illson, "Unrest Seething in Many Prisons," New York Times, Feb. 12, 1953.
90. Matthew J. Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 2005)
91. Heather Ann Thompson, Whose Detroit? Politics, Labor, and Race in a Modern American City (Ithaca, 2001).
92. Robert D. Atkinson, "Prison Labor: It's More Than Just Breaking Rocks," May 2002, Progressive Policy Institute, http://www.ppionline.org/documents/prison_labor_502.pdf.
93. George E. Sexton, "Work in American Prisons: Joint Ventures with the Private Sector," July 26, 2004, National Criminal Justice Reference Service, http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/workampr.pdf, p. 5.
94. Gordon Lafer, "Captive Labor: America's Prisoners as Corporate Workforce," American Prospect, Sept. 1, 1999, http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=captive_labor.
95. David Leonhardt, "As Prison Labor Grows, So Does the Debate," New York Times, March 19, 2000, http://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/19/business/as-prison-labor-grows-so-does-the-debate.html.
96. Robert P. Weiss, "'Repatriating' Low-Wage Work: The Political Economy of Prison Labor Reprivatization in the Postindustrial United States," Criminology, 39 (May 2001), 266
97. Frederick W. Derrick, Charles E. Scott, and Thomas Hutson, "Prison Labor Effects on the Unskilled Labor Market,"American Economist, 48 (Fall 2004), 74-81.
98. Charles C. Cox and Roger E. Meiners, "Private Employment of Prison Labor," Journal of Private Enterprise, 17 (Fall 2001), 18-63.
99. Douglas A. Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (New York, 2008)
100. Murray Illson, "Unrest Seething in Many Prisons," New York Times, Feb. 12, 1953
101. Heather Ann Thompson, "Rethinking Working-Class Struggle through the Lens of the Carceral State: Toward a Labor History of Inmates and Guards," Labor: Studies in Working- Class History of the Americas (forthcoming)
102. Susan Blankenship, "Revisiting the Democratic Possibilities of Prisoners' Labor Unions," Studies in Law, Politics, and Society: Crime and Punishment, Perspectives from the Humanities, 37 (Dec. 2005), 241-69.
103. Heather Ann Thompson, Whose Detroit? Politics, Labor, and Race in a Modern American City (Ithaca, 2001).
104. Matthew J. Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 2005)
105. McCarty, "From Con-Boss to Gang Lord." On a metal shop strike at Attica, see Attica: The Official Report of the New York State Special Commission on Attica (New York, 1972), 128.
106. Gwen Smith Ingley, "Inmate Labor: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow," Corrections Today, 58 (Feb. 1996), 28, 30, 77
107. Robert D. Atkinson, "Prison Labor: It's More Than Just Breaking Rocks," May 2002, Progressive Policy Institute, http:// www.ppionline.org/documents/prison_labor_502.pdf.
108. Judith A. Greene, "Entrepreneurial Corrections: Incarceration as a Business Opportunity," in Invisible Punishment, ed. Mauer and Chesney-Lind, 96.
109. George E. Sexton, "Work in American Prisons: Joint Ventures with the Private Sector," July 26, 2004, National Criminal Justice Reference Service, http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/workampr .pdf, p. 5.
110. Gordon Lafer, "Captive Labor: America's Prisoners as Corporate Workforce," American Prospect, Sept. 1, 1999, http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=captive_labor
111. David Leonhardt, "As Prison Labor Grows, So Does the Debate," New York Times, March 19, 2000, http://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/19 /business/as-prison-labor-grows-so-does-the-debate.html.
112. Pamela LiCalzi O'Connell, "New Economy: For Consumer Goods Producers, It Is Not So Bad to Be Behind Bars," New York Times, May 14, 2001, http://www .nytimes.com/2001/05/14/business/new-economy-for-consumer-goods-producers-it-is-not-so-bad-to-be-behind -bars.html
113. Robert P. Weiss, "'Repatriating' Low-Wage Work: The Political Economy of Prison Labor Reprivatization in the Postindustrial United States," Criminology, 39 (May 2001), 266
114. Frederick W. Derrick, Charles E. Scott, and Thomas Hutson, "Prison Labor Effects on the Unskilled Labor Market,"American Economist, 48 (Fall 2004), 74-81.
115. Charles C. Cox and Roger E. Meiners, "Private Employment of Prison Labor," Journal of Private Enterprise, 17 (Fall 2001), 18-63.
116. Dan Pens, "Microsoft 'Outcells' Competition," in The Celling of America: An Inside Look at the U.S. Prison Industry, ed. Daniel Burton Rose, Dan Pens, and Paul Wright (Monroe, 1998), 118.
117. Danny Cahill, "The Global Economy behind Ohio Prison Walls," in Celling of America, ed. Rose, Pens, and Wright, 110
118. Pat Beall and Chad Terhune, "Job Program at Prison Draws Fire," Wall Street Journal, Jan. 15, 1997.
119. Anne-Marie Cusac, "Toxic Prison Labor," Progressive, 73 (March 2009), 26-31
120. Elizabeth Grossman, "Toxic Recycling," Nation, Nov. 21, 2005, pp. 20, 22, 24.
121. Elena H. Page and David Sylvain, "Exposure to Hazardous Metals during Electronics Recycling at Four unicor Facilities," Dec. 2009, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/reports/pdfs/2008-0055 -3098.pdf.
122. Byron Eugene Price, Merchandizing Prisoners: Who Really Pays for Prison Privatization? (Westport, 2006)
123. Curtis Blakely, America's Prisons: The Movement toward Profit and Privatization (Boca Raton, 2005)
124. David Shichor, Punishment for Profit: Private Prisons/Public Concerns (Thousand Oaks, 1995).
125. Dana Joel, "A Guide to Prison Privatization," May 24, 1988, Heritage Foundation, http://www.heritage.org/research /reports/1988/05/bg650-a-guide-to-prison-privatization
126. Michael Myser, "The Hard Sell," Business 2.0 Magazine, March 15, 2007, http://money.cnn.com/magazines/business2/business2_archive/2006/12/01/8394995 /index.htm.
127. Hilary Dick, "Making Mexicans Illegal in Small Town usa," Journal of Linguistic Anthropology (forthcoming, Winter 2011)
128. Stephanie Desmon, "Shortage of Pickers Has Crab Houses Pondering Hiring State Prisoners," Baltimore Sun, April 16, 2009, http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2009-04-16/news/0904150157_1_crab-foreign -workers-prisoners
129. Jennifer Grzeskowiak, "Inmate Labor Pays Off for Business, Counties," American City and County, June 1, 2005, http://americancityandcounty.com/mag/government_inmate_labor_pays/, pp. 12-14.
130. Bruce Western, Becky Pettit, and Josh Guetzkow, "Black Economic Progress in the Era of Mass Imprisonment," in Invisible Punishment, ed. Mauer and Chesney-Lind, 175, 178
131. David F. Weiman, Michael A. Stoll, and Shawn Bushway, "The Regime of Mass Incarceration: A Labor-Market Perspective," in Barriers to Reentry?, ed. Bushway, Stoll, and Weiman, 42.
132. Becky Pettit and Christopher J. Lyons, "Status and the Stigma of Incarceration: The Labor-Market Effects of Incarceration, by Race, Class, and Criminal Involvement," in Barriers to Reentry?, ed. Bushway, Stoll, and Weiman, 221.
133. Eric Schlosser, "The Prison-Industrial Complex," Atlantic Monthly, 282 (Dec. 1998), http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1998/12/the-prison-industrial -complex/4669/.
134. Tracy Huling, "Building a Prison Economy in Rural America," in Invisible Punishment, ed. Mauer and Chesney-Lind, 207
135. Federal Prison Industries, Inc., "Hoover's Company Records-In-depth Records," April 2, 2010, available at LexisNexus.
136. afl-cio Executive Council, "The Exploitation of Prison Labor," May 7, 1997, Southern Automotive Wholesalers, http://www.southernautomotive.com/fpi/aflciofpi.htm.
137. Gary Gerstle, eds., The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton, 1990).
138. Jonathan Rieder, Canarsie: The Jews and Italians of Brooklyn against Liberalism (Cambridge, Mass., 2005)
139. Allen J. Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York, 1987)
140. Thomas Byrne Edsall and Mary D. Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York, 1992)
141. Tamar Jacoby, Someone Else's House: America's Unfinished Struggle for Integration (New York, 2001)
142. Michael W. Flamm, Law and Order: Street Crime, Civil Unrest, and the Crisis of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York, 2007)
143. Rick Perlstein, Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America (New York, 2008)
144. Jonathan M. Schoenwald, A Time for Choosing: The Rise of Modern American Conservatism (New York, 2001)
145. Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin, America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s (New York, 2007). Edsall and Edsall, Chain Reaction, 48. Flamm, Law and Order, 168.
146. Dennis D. Loo and Ruth-Ellen M. Grimes, "Polls, Politics, and Crime: The 'Law and Order' Issue of the 1960s," Western Criminology Review, 5 (no. 1, 2004), 50-67.
147. Heather Ann Thompson, "Rethinking the Politics of White Flight in the Postwar City: Detroit, 1945-1980," Journal of Urban History, 25 (Jan. 1999), 163-98
148. Gebhard Long et al., "Detroit Police Department-A Research Report on Previous Studies; Criminal Statistics; and Police Technology, Productivity, and Competence," May 1970, box 37, Kenneth Cockrel/Sheila Murphy Cockrell Collection (Walter Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit).
149. Amy E. Lerman, "The People Prisons Make: Effects of Incarceration on Criminal Psychology," in Do Prisons Make Us Safer?, ed. Raphael and Stoll, 168.
150. Lyndon Baines Johnson, "Special Message to the Congress on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice," March 8, 1965, Papers of Lyndon Baines Johnson, Presidential Documents Archive, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=26800.
151. Lyndon Baines Johnson, "Special Message to the Congress on Crime and Law Enforcement," March 9, 1966, ibid., http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index .php?pid=27478.
152. Katherine Beckett, Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics (New York, 1997), 38.
153. Gary Donaldson, Liberalism's Last Hurrah: The Presidential Campaign of 1964 (Armonk, 2003), 252.
154. Elaine Tyler May, "Gimme Shelter: Do-It-Yourself Defense and the Politics of Fear," in The Cultural Turn in U.S. History: Past, Present, and Future, ed. James W. Cook, Lawrence B. Glickman, and Michael O'Malley (Chicago, 2008), 226.
155. Elaine Tyler May, "Gimme Shelter: Do-It-Yourself Defense and the Politics of Fear," in The Cultural Turn in U.S. History: Past, Present, and Future, ed. James W. Cook, Lawrence B. Glickman, and Michael O'Malley (Chicago, 2008), 226.
156. Jeff Manza and Christopher Uggen, Locked Out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy (New York, 2006), 55.
157. Pippa Holloway, "Disfranchised for Crime: Voting Rights and Criminal Convictions in the South, 1865- 1920" (unpublished manuscript) (in Pippa Holloway's possession).
158. Elizabeth A. Hull, The Disenfranchisement of Ex-felons (Philadelphia, 2006), 99.
159. Gary Hunter and Peter Wagner, "Prisons, Politics, and the Census," in Prison Profiteers, ed. Herivel and Wright, 80-89.
160. Todd Clear, "The Problem with 'Addition by Subtraction': The Prison-Crime Relationship in Low Income Communities," in Invisible Punishment, ed. Mauer and Chesney-Lind, 181-93
161. Jonathan Tilove, "Minority Prison Inmates Skew Local Populations as States Redistrict," March 12, 2002, Prison Policy Initiative, http:// www.prisonpolicy.org/news/newhousenews031202.html
162. Eric Lotke and Peter Wagner, "Prisoners of the Census: Electoral and Financial Consequences of Counting Prisoners Where They Go, Not Where They Come From," Pace Law Review, 24 (Spring 2004), 587-607.
163. Peter Wagner, "Twenty-one Counties Have Twenty-one Percent of Their Population in Prisons and Jails," April 19, 2004, Prisoners of the Census, http://www.prisonersofthecensus.org/news/2004/04/19/twenty-one/.
164. Andrew Marantz, "The Five-Fifths Clause: How We Count, and Use, Our Prisoners," Slate, Nov. 6, 2006, http://www .slate.com/id/2152994/.
165. Ryan S. King and Marc Mauer, "The Vanishing Black Electorate: Felony Disenfranchisement in Atlanta, Georgia," Sept. 2004, Sentencing Project, http://www.sentencingproject.org/doc/publications /fd_vanishingblackelectorate.pdf.
166. Lauren Handelsman, "Giving the Barking Dog a Bite: Challenging Felon Disenfranchisement under the Voting Rights Act of 1965," Fordham Law Review, 73 (March 2005), 1875-1940.
167. Peter Wagner, "Temporary Populations Change the Political Face of New York," Aug. 30, 2004, Prisoners of the Census, http://www.prisonersofthecensus.org/news/2004/08/30/temporary-populations/.
168. Peter Wagner, "Locked Up, but Still Counted: How Prison Populations Distort Democracy," Sept. 5, 2008, ibid., http://www .prisonersofthecensus.org/news/2008/09/05/stillcounted/.
169. Marc Mauer, "Mass Imprisonment and the Disappearing Voters," in Invisible Punishment, ed. Mauer and Chesney-Lind, 53.
170. Thomas P. Bonczar, "Prevalence of Imprisonment in the U.S Population: 1974-2001," Aug. 2003, U.S. Department of Justice: Bureau of Justice Statistics, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/piusp01.pdf.