Expectancy biases in fear and anxiety and their link to biases in attention

Clinical Psychology Review

Volumn 42, Issue , 2015, Pages 83-95

  Aue, Tatjana ^a,b   Okon Singer, Hadas ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BERN   (Switzerland)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA   (Switzerland)

^c UNIVERSITY OF HAIFA   (Israel)

Author keywords

Anxiety; Attention bias; Combined bias hypothesis; Expectancy bias; Fear; Phobia; Threat

Indexed keywords

ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR; ANXIETY; ANXIETY DISORDER; ATTENTION; ATTENTIONAL BIAS; COGNITIVE BIAS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; EXPECTANCY BIAS; EXPECTATION; FEAR; HUMAN; INFORMATION PROCESSING; INFORMATION PROCESSING BIAS; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MEMORY; REVIEW; STIMULUS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHOBIA; PHYSIOLOGY;

ANXIETY; ATTENTION; FEAR; HUMANS; PHOBIC DISORDERS;

EID: 84941695422     PISSN: 02727358     EISSN: 18737811     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2015.08.005     Document Type: Review

References (150)

1. American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 2013, American Psychiatric Publishing, Arlington, VA. 5th ed.
2. Amin J.M., Lovibond P.F. Dissociations between covariation bias and expectancy bias for fear-relevant stimuli. Cognition and Emotion 1997, 11:273-289.
3. Amir N., Beard C., Taylor C.T., Klumpp H., Elias J., Burns M., Chen X. Attention training in individuals with generalized social phobia: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2009, 77:961-973.
4. Amir N., Bomyea J., Beard C. The effects of single-session interpretation modification on attention bias in socially anxious individuals. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2010, 24:178-182.
5. Amir N., Foa E.B., Coles M.E. Automatic activation and strategic avoidance of threat-relevant information in social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1998, 107:285-290.
6. Amrhein C., Pauli P., Dengler W., Wiedemann G. Covariation bias and its physiological correlates in panic disorder patients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2005, 19:177-191.
7. Arend I., Henik A., Okon-Singer H. Dissociating emotion and attention functions in the pulvinar nucleus of the thalamus. Neuropsychology 2015, 29:191-196.
8. Aue T., Guex R., Chauvigné L.A.S., Okon-Singer H. Varying expectancies and the attention bias in phobic and non-phobic individuals. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2013, 7:418.
9. Aue T., Hoeppli M.E. Evidence for an encounter expectancy bias in fear of spiders. Cognition and Emotion 2012, 26:727-736.
10. Aue T., Hoeppli M.E., Piguet C., Hofstetter C., Rieger S.W., Vuilleumier P. Brain systems underlying expectancy bias in spider phobia. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience 2015, 15:335-348.
11. Aue T., Hoeppli M.E., Piguet C., Sterpenich V., Vuilleumier P. Visual avoidance in phobia: Particularities in neural activity, autonomic responding, and cognitive risk evaluations. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2013, 7:194.
12. Aue T., Nusbaum H.C., Cacioppo J.T. Neural correlates of wishful thinking. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 2012, 7:991-1000.
13. Bandura A. Social learning theory 1977, General Learning Press, New York, NY.
14. Bar-Haim Y. Research review: Attention bias modification (ABM): A novel treatment for anxiety disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2010, 51:859-870.
15. Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 1-24.
16. Beard C. Cognitive bias modification for anxiety: Current evidence and future directions. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 2011, 11:299-311.
17. Beck A.T. Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders 1976, International Universities Press, New York, NY.
18. Beck A.T., Emery G., Greenberg R. Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective 1985, Basic Books, New York, NY.
19. Becker E.S., Rinck M. Sensitivity and response bias in fear of spiders. Cognition and Emotion 2004, 18:961-976.
20. Becker E.S., Rinck M., Margraf J., Roth W.T. The emotional Stroop effect in anxiety disorders: General emotionality or disorder specificity?. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2001, 15:147-159.
21. Blaut A., Paulewicz B., Szastok M., Prochwicz K., Koster E. Are attentional bias and memory bias for negative words causally related?. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 2013, 44:293-299.
22. Boston A., Sharpe L. The role of threat-expectancy in acute pain: Effects on attentional bias, coping strategy effectiveness and response to pain. Pain 2005, 119:168-175.
23. Bradley B.P., Mogg K., Lee S.C. Attentional biases for negative information in induced and naturally occurring dysphoria. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1997, 35:911-927.
24. Bradley M.M., Lang P. Emotion and motivation. Handbook of psychophysiology 2007, 581-607. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. 3rd ed. J.T. Cacioppo, L.G. Tassinary, G.G. Berntson (Eds.).
25. Brosch T., Sander D., Pourtois G., Scherer K.R. Beyond fear: Rapid spatial orienting toward positive emotional stimuli. Psychological Science 2008, 19:362-370.
26. Browning M., Holmes E.A., Harmer C. The modification of attentional bias to emotional information: A review of the techniques, mechanisms, and relevance to emotional disorders. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience 2010, 10:8-20.
27. Browning M., Holmes E.A., Murphy S.E., Goodwin G.M., Harmer C.J. Lateral prefrontal cortex mediates the cognitive modification of attentional bias. Biological Psychiatry 2010, 67:919-925.
28. Buhr K., Dugas M.J. Investigating the construct validity of intolerance of uncertainty and its unique relationship with worry. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2006, 20:222-236.
29. Burra N., Kerzel D. Attentional capture during visual search is attenuated by target predictability: Evidence from the N2pc, Pd, and topographic segmentation. Psychophysiology 2013, 50:422-430.
30. Butler G., Fennell M., Hackmann A. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders 2008, The Guilford Press, New York, NY.
31. Butler G., Mathews A. Cognitive processes in anxiety. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy 1983, 5:51-62.
32. Cisler J.M., Koster E.H.W. Mechanisms of attentional biases towards threat in anxiety disorders: An integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review 2010, 30:203-216.
33. Cisler J.M., Ries B.J., Widner R.L. Examining information processing biases in spider phobia using the rapid serial visual presentation paradigm. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2007, 21:977-990.
34. Clarke P.J., MacLeod C., Guastella A.J. Assessing the role of spatial engagement and disengagement of attention in anxiety-linked attentional bias: A critique of current paradigms and suggestions for future research directions. Anxiety, Stress & Coping 2013, 26:1-19.
35. Clarke P.J., Notebaert L., MacLeod C. Absence of evidence or evidence of absence: Reflecting on therapeutic implementations of attentional bias modification. BMC Psychiatry 2014, 14:8.
36. Davey G.C.L. An expectancy model of laboratory preparedness effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 1992, 121:24-40.
37. Davey G.C.L. Preparedness and phobias: Specific evolved associations or a generalized expectancy bias?. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1995, 18:289-325.
38. Davey G.C.L., Dixon A.L. The expectancy bias model of selective associations: The relationship of judgements of CS dangerousness, CS-UCS similarity and prior fear to a priori and a posteriori covariation assessments. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1996, 34:235-252.
39. de Jong P., Merckelbach H. Covariation bias and electrodermal responding in spider phobics before and after behavioural treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1991, 29:307-314.
40. de Jong P.J., Merckelbach H., Arntz A. Covariation bias in phobic women: The relationship between a priori expectancy, on-line expectancy, autonomic responding, and a posteriori contingency judgment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1995, 104:55-62.
41. de Jong P.J., Merckelbach H., Arntz A., Nijman H. Covariation detection in treated and untreated spider-phobic participants. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1992, 101:724-727.
42. de Jong P.J., Muris P. Spider phobia: Interaction of disgust and perceived likelihood of involuntary physical contact. Anxiety Disorders 2002, 16:51-65.
43. Diamond D., Matchett G., Davey G.C.L. The effect of prior fear levels on UCS-expectancy ratings to a fear-relevant stimulus. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 1995, 48A:237-247.
44. Di Simplicio M., Doallo S., Costoloni G., Rohenkohl G., Nobre A.C., Harmer C.J. 'Can you look me in the face?' Short-term SSRI administration reverts avoidant ocular face exploration in subjects at risk for psychopathology. Neuropsychopharmacology 2014, 39:3059-3066.
45. Duncan J., Humphreys G. Visual search and stimulus similarity. Psychological Review 1989, 96:433-458.
46. Eldar S., Bar-Haim Y. Neural plasticity in response to attention training in anxiety. Psychological Medicine 2010, 40:667-677.
47. Ellenbogen M.A., Schwartzman A.E. Selective attention and avoidance on a pictorial cueing task during stress in clinically anxious and depressed patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2009, 47:128-138.
48. Everaert J., Duyck W., Koster E.H.W. Attention, interpretation, and memory biases in subclinical depression: A proof-of-principle test of the combined cognitive biases hypothesis. Emotion 2014, 14:331-340.
49. Everaert, J., Fan, J. E., Koster, E. H., & Turk-Browne, N. B. (2014). Attentional capture from emotional associations in long-term memory. Journal of Vision, 14, 510-510.
50. Everaert J., Koster E.H.W., Derakshan N. The combined cognitive bias hypothesis in depression. Clinical Psychology Review 2012, 32:413-424.
51. Everaert J., Tierens M., Uzieblo K., Koster E.H.W. The indirect effect of attention bias on memory via interpretation bias: Evidence for the combined bias hypothesis in subclinical depression. Cognition and Emotion 2013, 27:1450-1459.
52. Eysenck M.W., Mogg K., May J., Richards A., Mathews A. Bias in interpretation of ambiguous sentences related to threat in anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1991, 100:144-150.
53. Finnbogadóttir H., Berntsen D. Involuntary future projections are as frequent as involuntary memories, but more positive. Consciousness and Cognition 2013, 22:272-280.
54. Foa E.B., Franklin M.E., Perry K.J., Herbert J.D. Cognitive biases in generalized social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1996, 105:433-439.
55. Foa E.B., Kozak M.J. Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin 1986, 99:20-35.
56. Fox E., Russo R., Bowles R., Dutton K. Do threatening stimuli draw or hold visual attention in subclinical anxiety?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 2001, 130:681-700.
57. Fox E., Russo R., Dutton K. Attentional bias for threat: Evidence for delayed disengagement from emotional faces. Cognition and Emotion 2002, 16:355-379.
58. Frenkel T.I., Lamy D., Algom D., Bar-Haim Y. Individual differences in perceptual sensitivity and response bias in anxiety: Evidence from emotional faces. Cognition and Emotion 2009, 23:688-700.
59. Gentes E.L., Ruscio A.M. A meta-analysis of the relation of intolerance of uncertainty to symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Clinical Psychology Review 2011, 31:923-933.
60. Gerdes A.B.M., Alpers G.W., Pauli P. When spiders appear suddenly: Spider-phobic patients are distracted by task-irrelevant spiders. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2008, 46:174-187.
61. Gilboa-Schechtman E., Franklin M.E., Foa E. Anticipated reactions to social events: Differences among individuals with generalized social phobia, obsessive compulsive disorder, and nonanxious controls. Cognitive Therapy and Research 2000, 24:731-746.
62. Gotlib I.H., Krasnoperova E., Yue D.N., Joormann J. Attentional biases for negative interpersonal stimuli in clinical depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2004, 113:127-135.
63. Grenier S., Barrette A.M., Ladouceur R. Intolerance of uncertainty and intolerance of ambiguity: Similarities and differences. Personality and Individual Differences 2005, 39:593-600.
64. Grey S., Mathews A. Effects of training on interpretation of emotional ambiguity. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 2000, 53A:1143-1162.
65. Hakamata, Y., Lissek, S., Bar-Haim, Y., Britton, J. C., Fox, N. A., Leibenluft, E., . .Pine, D. S. (2010). Attention bias modification treatment: A meta-analysis toward the establishment of novel treatment for anxiety. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 982-990.
66. Hallion L.S., Ruscio A.M. A meta-analysis of the effect of cognitive bias modification on anxiety and depression. Psychological Bulletin 2011, 137:940-958.
67. Harmer C.J., Goodwin G.M., Cowen P.J. Why do antidepressants take so long to work? A cognitive neuropsychological model of antidepressant drug action. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2009, 195:102-108.
68. Heeren A., De Raedt R., Koster E.H., Philippot P. The (neuro)cognitive mechanisms behind attention bias modification in anxiety: Proposals based on theoretical accounts of attentional bias. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2013, 7:119.
69. Hertel P.T., Brozovich F., Joormann J., Gotlib I.H. Biases in interpretation and memory in generalized social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2008, 117:278-288.
70. Hirsch C.R., Clark D.M. Information-processing bias in social phobia. Clinical Psychology Review 2004, 24:799-825.
71. Hirsch C.R., Clark D.M., Mathews A. Imagery and interpretations in social phobia: Support for the combined cognitive biases hypothesis. Behavior Therapy 2006, 37:223-236.
72. Holaway R.M., Heimberg R.G., Coles M.E. A comparison of intolerance of uncertainty in analogue obsessive-compulsive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2006, 20:158-174.
73. Honeybourne C., Matchett G., Davey G.C.L. Expectancy models of preparedness effects: A UCS-Expectancy bias in phylogenetic and ontogenetic fear-relevant stimuli. Behavior Therapy 1993, 24:253-264.
74. Hutchinson J.B., Turk-Browne N.B. Memory-guided attention: Control from multiple memory systems. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2012, 16:576-579.
75. Ingram R.E. Toward an information-processing analysis of depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research 1984, 8:443-477.
76. Iordan A.D., Dolcos S., Dolcos F. Neural signatures of the response to emotional distraction: A review of evidence from brain imaging investigations. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2013, 7:200.
77. Kennedy S.J., Rapee R.M., Mazurski J. Covariation bias for phylogenetic versus ontogenetic fear-relevant stimuli. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1997, 35:415-422.
78. Kiyonaga A., Egner T., Soto D. Cognitive control over working memory biases of selection. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 2012, 19:639-646.
79. Koster E.H., Baert S., Bockstaele M., De Raedt R. Attentional retraining procedures: Manipulating early or late components of attentional bias?. Emotion 2010, 10:230-236.
80. Koster E.H.W., Crombez G., Verschuere B., De Houwer J. Selective attention to threat in the dot probe paradigm: Differentiating vigilance and difficulty to disengage. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2004, 42:1183-1192.
81. Koster E.H.W., Crombez G., Verschuere B., Van Damme S., Wiersema J.R. Components of attentional bias to threat in high trait anxiety: Facilitated engagement, impaired disengagement, and attentional avoidance. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2006, 44:1757-1771.
82. Koster E.H., De Raedt R., Goeleven E., Franck E., Crombez G. Mood-congruent attentional bias in dysphoria: Maintained attention to and impaired disengagement from negative information. Emotion 2005, 5:446.
83. LeMoult J., Joormann J. Attention and memory biases in social anxiety disorder: The role of comorbid depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research 2012, 36:47-57.
84. Leyman L., De Raedt R., Schacht R., Koster E.H. Attentional biases for angry faces in unipolar depression. Psychological Medicine 2007, 37:393-402.
85. Lipp O.V., Derakshan N. Attentional bias to pictures of fear-relevant animals in a dot probe task. Emotion 2005, 5:365-369.
86. Lipp O.V., Derakshan N., Waters A., Logies S. Snakes and cats in the flower bed: Fast detection is not specific to pictures of fear-relevant animals. Emotion 2004, 4:233-250.
87. Lowther H., Newman E. Attention bias modification (ABM) as a treatment for child and adolescent anxiety: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders 2014, 168:125-135.
88. Lucock M.P., Salkovskis P.M. Cognitive factors in social anxiety and its treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1988, 26:297-302.
89. Lundh L.G., Ost L.G. Explicit and implicit memory bias in social phobia: The role of subdiagnostic type. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1997, 35:305-317.
90. MacLeod C., Cohen I.L. Anxiety and the interpretation of ambiguity: A text comprehension study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1993, 102:238-247.
91. MacLeod C., Mathews A. Cognitive bias modification approaches to anxiety. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 2012, 8:189-217.
92. Mathews A., Mackintosh B. Induced emotional interpretation bias and anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2000, 109:602-615.
93. Mathews A., Mackintosh B., Fulcher E.P. Cognitive biases in anxiety and attention to threat. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 1997, 1:340-345.
94. Mathews A., MacLeod C. Cognitive approaches to emotion and emotional disorders. Annual Review of Psychology 1994, 45:25-50.
95. Mathews A., MacLeod C. Induced processing biases have causal effects on anxiety. Cognition and Emotion 2002, 16:331-354.
96. McManus F., Clark D.M., Hackmann A. Specificity of cognitive biases in social phobia and their role in recovery. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 2000, 28:201-209.
97. McNally R.J., Foa E.B. Cognition and agoraphobia: Bias in the interpretation of threat. Cognitive Therapy and Research 1987, 11:567-588.
98. McNally R.J., Heatherton T.F. Are covariation biases attributable to a priori expectancy biases?. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1993, 31:653-658.
99. Menzies R.G., Clarke J.C. Danger expectancies and insight in acrophobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1995, 33:215-221.
100. Mercado F., Carretie L., Hinojosa J.A., Penacoba C. Two successive phases in the threat-related attentional response of anxious subjects: Neural correlates. Depression and Anxiety 2009, 26:1141-1150.
101. Michalowski J.M., Melzig C.A., Weike A.I., Stockburger J., Schupp H.T., Hamm A.O. Brain dynamics in spider-phobic individuals exposed to phobia-relevant and other emotional stimuli. Emotion 2009, 9:306-315.
102. Mills A.C., Grant D.M., Judah M.R., White E.J. The influence of anticipatory processing on attentional biases in social anxiety. Behavior Therapy 2014, 45:720-729.
103. Mitte K. Memory bias for threatening information in anxiety and anxiety disorders: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin 2008, 134:886-911.
104. Mogg K., Bradley B.P. A cognitive-motivational analysis of anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1998, 36:809-848.
105. Mogg K., Bradley B.P. Some methodological issues in assessing attentional biases for threatening faces in anxiety: A replication study using a modified version of the probe detection task. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1999, 37:595-604.
106. Mogg K., Bradley B.P. Time course of attentional bias for fear-relevant pictures in spider-fearful individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2006, 44:1241-1250.
107. Mogg K., Bradley B.P., DeBono J., Painter M. Time course of attentional bias for threat information in non-clinical anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1997, 35:297-303.
108. Mowrer O.H. Two-factor learning theory reconsidered, with special reference to secondary reinforcement and the concept of habit. Psychological Review 1956, 63:114-128.
109. Mühlberger A., Wiedemann G., Herrmann M.J., Pauli P. Phylo- and ontogenetic fears and the expectation of danger: Differences between spider- and flight-phobic subjects in cognitive and physiological responses to disorder-specific stimuli. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2006, 115:580-589.
110. Muris P., Huijding J., Mayer B., den Breejen E., Makkelie M. Spider fear and covariation bias in children and adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2007, 45:2604-2615.
111. Myers K.M., Davis M. Behavioral and neural analysis of extinction. Neuron 2002, 36:567-684.
112. Öhman A., Flykt A., Esteves F. Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 2001, 130:466-478.
113. Öhman A., Mineka S. Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review 2001, 108:483-522.
114. Okon-Singer H., Alyagon U., Kofman O., Tzelgov J., Henik A. Fear-related pictures deteriorate the performance of university students with high fear of snakes or spiders. Stress: The International Journal on the Biology of Stress 2011, 14:185-193.
115. Okon-Singer H., Hendler T., Pessoa L., Shackman A.J. The neurobiology of emotion-cognition interactions: Fundamental questions and strategies for future research. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2015, 9:58.
116. Okon-Singer H., Lichtenstein-Vidne L., Cohen N. Dynamic modulation of emotional processing. Biological Psychology 2013, 92:480-491.
117. Olivers C.N.L., Peters J., Houtkamp R., Roelfsema P.R. Different states in visual working memory: When it guides attention and when it does not. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2011, 15:327-334.
118. Pauli P., Montoya P., Martz G.E. On-line and a posteriori covariation estimates in panic-prone individuals: Effects of a high contingency of shocks following fear-irrelevant stimuli. Cognitive Therapy and Research 2001, 25:103-116.
119. Pergamin-Hight, L., Naim, R., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2015). Content specificity of attention bias to threat in anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 35, 10-18.
120. Pflugshaupt T., Mosimann U.P., Wartburg R.V., Schmitt W., Nyffeler T., Müri R.M. Hypervigilance-avoidance pattern in spider phobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2005, 19:105-116.
121. Pury, C. L. S., & Mineka, S. (1997). Covariation bias for blood-injury stimuli and aversive outcomes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 35-47.
122. Rachman S. The conditioning theory of fear-acquisition: A critical examination. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1977, 15:375-387.
123. Reese H.E., McNally R.J., Najmi S., Amir N. Attention training for reducing spider fear in spider-fearful individuals. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2010, 24:657-662.
124. Richards H.J., Benson V., Donnelly N., Hadwin J.A. Exploring the function of selective attention and hypervigilance for threat in anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review 2014, 34:1-13.
125. Rinck M., Becker E.S. Spider fearful individuals attend to threat, then quickly avoid it: Evidence from eye movements. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2006, 115:231-238.
126. Salum, G. A., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Gadelha, A., Pan, P., Tamanaha, A. C.,. . Pine, D. S. (2013). Threat bias in attention orienting: Evidence of specificity in a large community-based study. Psychological Medicine, 43, 733-745.
127. Schmidt N.B., Richey J.A., Buckner J.D., Timpano K.R. Attention training for generalized social anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2009, 118:5-14.
128. Shechner T., Britton J.C., Pérez-Edgar K., Bar-Haim Y., Ernst M., Fox N.A., Pine D.S. Attention biases, anxiety, and development: Toward or away from threats or rewards?. Depression and Anxiety 2012, 29:282-294.
129. Spielberger C.D., Gorsuch R.L., Lushene R.E. Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory 1970, Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA.
130. Tipples J., Young A.W., Quinlan P., Broks P., Ellis A.W. Searching for threat. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 2002, 55:1007-1026.
131. Tomarken A.J., Mineka S., Cook M. Fear-relevant selective associations and covariation bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1989, 98:381-394.
132. Tomarken A.J., Sutton S.K., Mineka S. Fear-relevant illusory correlations: What types of associations promote judgmental bias?. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1995, 104:312-326.
133. Tran T.B., Hertel P.T., Joormann J. Cognitive bias modification: Induced interpretive biases affect memory. Emotion 2011, 11:145-152.
134. Vogt J., De Houwer J., Crombez G. Multiple goal management starts with attention: Goal prioritizing affects the allocation of spatial attention to goal-relevant events. Experimental Psychology 2011, 58:55-61.
135. Vogt J., De Houwer J., Crombez G., van Damme S. Competing for attentional priority: Temporary goals versus threats. Emotion 2013, 13:587-598.
136. Vrijsen J.N., Fleurkens P., Nieuwboer W., Rinck M. Attentional bias to moving spiders in spider fearful individuals. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2009, 23:541-545.
137. Vrijsen J.N., van Oostrom I., Isaac L., Becker E.S., Speckens A. Coherence between attentional and memory biases in sad and formerly depressed individuals. Cognitive Therapy and Research 2014, 38:334-342.
138. Vuilleumier P. How brains beware: Neural mechanisms of emotional attention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2005, 9:585-594.
139. Watters A.J., Williams L.M. Negative biases and risk for depression: Integrating self-report and emotion task markers. Depression and Anxiety 2011, 28:703-718.
140. Wik G., Fredrikson M., Ericson K., Eriksson L., Stone-Elander S., Greitz T. A functional cerebral response to frightening visual stimulation. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 1993, 50:15-24.
141. Wik G., Fredrikson M., Fischer H. Cerebral correlates of anticipated fear: A PET study of specific phobia. International Journal of Neuroscience 1996, 87:267-276.
142. Williams J.M.G., Watts F.N., MacLeod C., Mathews A. Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders 1997, Wiley, New York, NY.
143. Williams L.M., Gatt J.M., Schofield P.R., Olivieri G., Peduto A., Gordon E. 'Negativity bias' in risk for depression and anxiety: Brain-body fear circuitry correlates, 5-HTT-LPR and early life stress. NeuroImage 2009, 47:804-814.
144. Wilson E., MacLeod C. Contrasting two accounts of anxiety-linked attentional bias: Selective attention to varying levels of stimulus threat intensity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2003, 112:212-218.
145. Wolfe J.M. Moving towards solutions to some enduring controversies in visual search. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2003, 7:70-76.
146. Wolfe J.M. Visual search. Current Biology 2010, 20:R346-R349.
147. Wolfe J.M., Butcher S.J., Lee C., Hyle M. Changing your mind: On the contributions of the top-down and bottom-up guidance in visual search for feature singletons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 2003, 29:483-502.
148. World Health Organization International classification of diseases and related health problems 1992, Author., Geneva, Switzerland. 10th rev.
149. Yiend J. The effects of emotion on attention: A review of attentional processing of emotional information. Cognition and Emotion 2010, 24:3-47.
150. Yiend J., Mathews A. Anxiety and attention to threatening pictures. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 2001, 54:665-681.