Plant phenology and climate change: Progress in methodological approaches and application

Progress in Physical Geography

Volumn 39, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 460-482

  Fitchett, Jennifer M ^a   Grab, Stefan W ^a   Thompson, Dave I ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

^b SOUTH AFRICAN ENVIRONMENTAL OBSERVATION NETWORK   (South Africa)

Author keywords

climate change; climate variability; global trends; phenology; plant responses

Indexed keywords

BIOGEOGRAPHY; CLIMATE CHANGE; CLIMATE EFFECT; CLIMATE VARIATION; METHODOLOGY; PHENOLOGY; PLANT;

EID: 84938846539     PISSN: 03091333     EISSN: 14770296     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0309133315578940     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. M.S.Abu-AsabP.M.PetersonS.G.Shetler. (2001) Earlier plant flowering in spring as a response to global warming in the Washington, DC, area. Biodiversity and Conservation10(4): 597–612.
2. T.AmanoR.J.SmithersT.H.Sparks. (2010) A 250-year index of first flowering dates and its response to temperature changes. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Biological Sciences277(1086): 2451–2457.
3. K.AndersonK.J.Gaston (2013) Lightweight unmanned aerial vehicles will revolutionize spatial ecology. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment11(3): 138–146.
4. G.P.AnserA.R.TownsendB.H.Braswell (2000) Satellite observation of El Niño effects on Amazon forest phenology and productivity. Geophysical Research Letters27(7): 981–984.
5. V.K.AroraG.J.Boer (2005) A parameterization of leaf phenology for the terrestrial ecosystem component of climate models. Global Change Biology11(1): 39–59.
6. C.K.Augspurger, (1981) Reproductive synchrony of a tropical shrub: Experimental studies on effects of pollinators and seed predators on Hybanthus prunifolius (Violaceae). Ecology62(3):775–788.
7. F.W.BadeckA.BondeauK.Böttcher. (2004) Responses of spring phenology to climate change. New Phytologist162(2): 295–209.
8. E.G.Beaubien (2011) Spring flowering response to climate change between 1936 and 2006 in Alberta, Canada. BioScience61(7): 514–524.
9. E.G.BeaubienH.J.Freeland (2000) Spring phenology trends in Alberta, Canada: Links to ocean temperature. International Journal of Biometeorology44(2): 53–59.
10. J.BerniP.J.Zarco-TejadaL.Suarez. (2009) Thermal and narrowband multispectral remote sensing for vegetation from an unmanned aerial vehicle. Geoscience and Remote Sensing47(3): 722–738.
11. E.Blanc (2012) The impact of climate change on crop yields in Sub-Saharan Africa. American Journal of Climate Change1(1): 1–13.
12. A.BockT.H.SparksN.Estrella. (2014) Changes in first flowering dates and duration of 232 plant species on the island of Guernsey. Global Change Biology20(11): 3508–3519.
13. E.BradleyD.RobertsC.Still (2010b) Design of an image analysis website for phenological and meteorological monitoring. Environmental Modelling and Software25(1): 107–116.
14. E.S.BradleyM.P.ToomeyC.J.Still. (2010a) Multi-scale sensor fusion with an online application: Integrating GOES, MODIS and webcam imagery for environmental monitoring. IEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing3(4): 497–506.
15. N.L.BradleyA.C.LeopoldJ.Ross. (1999) Phenological changes reflect climate change in Wisconsin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences96(17): 9701–9704.
16. M.BroichA.HueteM.G.Tulbure. (2014) Land surface phenological response to decadal climate variability across Australia using satellite remote sensing. BioGeoScience Discussions11: 7685–7719.
17. M.G.R.CannellR.I.Smith (1986) Climatic warming, spring budburst and frost damage on trees. Journal of Applied Ecology23(1): 177–191.
18. P.J.CaraDonnaA.M.IlerD.W.Inouye (2014) Shifts in flowering phenology reshape a subalpine plant community. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences111(13): 4916–4921.
19. C.A.ChapmanL.J.ChapmanT.T.Struhsaker. (2005) A long term evaluation of fruiting phenology: Importance of climate change. Journal of Tropical Ecology21(1): 31–45.
20. X.ChenB.HuR.Yu (2005) Spatial and temporal variation of phenological growing season and climate change impacts in temperate eastern China. Global Change Biology11(7): 1118–1130.
21. X.ChenL.Xu (2012) Phenological responses of Ulmus pumila (Siberian Elm) to climate change in the temperate zone of China. International Journal of Biometeorology56(4): 695–706.
22. F.M.Chmielewski (2002) Climate variability and trends in plant phenology in Europe and in Germany. In: 15th conference on biometeorology and aerobiology joint with the 16th international congress on biometeorology, Kansas City, Missouri, 373–374.
23. F.M.ChmielewskiA.MüllerE.Bruns (2004) Climate changes and trends in phenology of fruit trees and field crops in Germany, 1961-2000. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology121(1–2): 69–78.
24. F.M.ChmielewskiT.Rötzer (2001) Response of tree phenology to climate change across Europe. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology108(2): 101–112.
25. F.M.ChmielewskiT.Rötzer (2002) Annual and spatial variability of the beginning of growing season in Europe in relation to air temperature changes. Climate Research10: 257–264.
26. I.ChuineP.YiouN.Viovy. (2004) Historical phenology: Grape ripening as a past climate indicator. Nature432: 289–290.
27. E.E.ClelandJ.M.AllenT.M.Crimmins. (2012) Phenological tracking enables positive species responses to climate change. Ecology93(8): 1765–1771.
28. B.I.CookT.M.SmithM.E.Mann (2005) The North Atlantic Oscillation and regional phenology prediction over Europe. Global Change Biology11(6): 919–926.
29. B.I.CookE.M.WolkovichT.J.Davies. (2012) Sensitivity of spring phenology to warming across temporal and spatial climate gradients in two independent databases. Ecosystems15(8): 1283–1294.
30. R.T.CorlettJ.V.Lafrankie (1998) Potential impacts of climate change on tropical Asian forests through an influence on phenology. Climatic Change39(2–3): 439–453.
31. Z.ČrepinšekL.Kajfež-Bogataj (2006) Phenology – Indicator of plant response to climate regime. In: BALWOIS conference on water observation and information system for decision support, Ohrid, Macedonia.
32. R.DarbyshireL.WebbI.Goodwin. (2012) Evaluation of recent trends in Australian pome fruit spring phenology. International Journal of Biometeorology57(3): 409–421.
33. T.P.DawsonS.T.JacksonJ.I.House. (2011) Beyond predictions: Biodiversity conservation in a changing climate. Science332(6025): 53–58.
34. J.P.De Melo-AbreuD.BarrancoA.M.Cordeiro. (2004) Modelling olive flowering date using chilling for dormancy release and thermal time. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology125(1–2): 117–127.
35. B.E.Dethier (1974) Phenology satellite experiment. Final Report NAS5-21781. New York: Cornell University.
36. J.A.DunneJ.HarteK.J.Taylor (2003) Subalpine meadow flowering phenology responses to climate change: Integrating experimental and gradient methods. Ecological Monographs73(1): 69–86.
37. J.M.DurantD.O.HjermannG.Ottersen. (2007) Climate and the match or mismatch between predator requirements and resource availability. Climate Research33(3): 271–283.
38. E.R.EllwoodS.R.PlayfairC.A.Polgar. (2014) Cranberry flowering times and climate change in southern Massachusetts. International Journal of Biometeorology58(7): 1693–1697.
39. N.EstrellaT.H.SparksA.Menzel (2007) Trends and temperature response in the phenology of crops in Germany. Global Change Biology13(8): 1737–1747.
40. J.I.FischerJ.F.MustardA.Vadeboncoeur (2006) Green leaf phenology at Landsat resolution: Scaling from the field to the satellite. Remote Sensing of Environment100(2): 265–279.
41. J.M.FitchettS.W.GrabD.I.Thompson. (2014a) Spatio-temporal variation in phenological response of citrus to climate change in Iran: 1960-2010. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology198–199: 285–293.
42. J.M.FitchettS.W.GrabD.I.Thompson. (2014b) Increasing frost risk associated with advanced citrus flowering dates in Kerman and Shiraz, Iran: 1960-2010. International Journal of Biometeorology58(8): 1811–1815.
43. A.H.FitterR.S.R.FitterI.T.B.Harris. (1995) Relationships between first flowering date and temperature in the flora of a locality in central England. Functional Ecology9(1): 55–60.
44. M.A.FriedlJ.M.GrayE.K.Melaas. (2014) A tale of two springs: Using recent climate anomalies to characterize the sensitivity of temperate forest phenology to climate change. Environmental Research Letters9(5): 054006.
45. O.GordoJ.J.Sanz (2005) Phenology and climate change: A long-term study in a Mediterranean locality. Oecologia146(3): 484–495.
46. O.GordoJ.J.Sanz (2009) Long-term temporal changes of plant phenology in the Western Mediterranean. Global Change Biology15(8): 1930–1948.
47. S.GrabA.Craparo (2011) Advance of apple and pear tree full bloom dates in response to climate change in the southwestern Cape, South Africa: 1973-2009. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology151(3): 406–413.
48. L.GrewlingB.JackowiakM.Smith (2014) Variations in Quercus sp. Pollen seasons (1996-2011) in Poznan, Poland, in relation to meteorological parameters. Aerobiologia30(2): 149–159.
49. L.GuoJ.DaiS.Ranjitkard. (2013) Response of chestnut phenology in China to climate variation and change. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology180: 164–172.
50. S.J.HeglandA.NielsenA.Lázaro. (2009) How does climate warming affect plant-pollinator interactions?Ecology Letters12(2): 184–195.
51. E.H.HoggD.T.PriceT.A.Black (2000) Postulated feedbacks of deciduous forest phenology on seasonal climate patterns in the Western Canadian interior. Journal of Climate13: 4229–4243.
52. T.T.HøyeE.PostH.Meltofte. (2007). Rapid advancement of spring in the high arctic. Current Biology17(12): 449–451.
53. A.M.IlerT.T.HøyeD.W.Inouye. (2013). Non-linear flowering responses to climate: Are species approaching their limits of phenological change?Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society368(1624): 1–10.
54. D.W.Inouye (2008) Effects of climate change on phenology, frost damage, and floral abundance of montane wildflowers. Ecology89(2): 353–362.
55. D.W.InouyeM.A.MoralesG.J.Dodge (2002) Variation in timing and abundance of flowering by Delphinium barbeyi Huth (Ranunculaceae): The roles of snowpack, frost, and La Niña, in the context of climate change. Oecologia139(4): 543–550.
56. D.W.InouyeF.E.Wielgolaski (2013) High altitude climates. In: M.D.Schwartz (ed.) Phenology: An Integrative Environmental Science. Dortrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, 195–214.
57. A.JentschC.Beierkuhnlein (2008) Research frontiers in climate change: Effects of extreme meteorological events on ecosystems. External Geophysics, Climate and Environment340(9–10): 621–628.
58. A.JentschJ.KreylingC.Beierkkuhnlein (2007) A new generation of climate-change experiments: Events, not trends. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment5(7): 365–374.
59. C.O.JusticeJ.R.G.TownshendB.N.Holben. (1985) Analysis of the phenology of global vegetation using meteorological satellite data. International Journal of Remote Sensing6(8): 1271–1318.
60. C.Kaiser-BunburyS.MuffJ.Memmott. (2010) The robustness of pollination networks to the loss of species and interactions: A quantitative approach incorporating pollinator behaviour. Ecology Letters13(4): 442–452.
61. R.Kalbarczyk (2009) Air temperature changes and phenological phases of field cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) in Poland, 1966-2005. Horticultural Science (Prague)36(2): 75–83.
62. M.R.KeatleyT.D.FletcherI.L.Hudson. (2002) Phenological studies in Australia: Potential application in historical and future climate analysis. International Journal of Climatology22(14): 1769–1780.
63. S.T.KlostermanK.HufkensJ.M.Gray. (2014) Evaluating remote sensing of deciduous forest phenology at multiple spatial scales using PhenoCam imagery. Biogeosciences Discussions11: 2305–2342.
64. K.KramerB.DegenJ.Buschbom. (2010) Modelling exploration of the future of European Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) under climate change – Range, Abundance, genetic diversity and adaptive response. Forest Ecology and Management259(11): 2213–2222.
65. K.KramerI.LeinonenD.Loustau (2000) The importance of phenology for the evaluation of impact of climate change on growth of boreal, temperate and Mediterranean forests ecosystems: An overview. International Journal of Biometeorology44(2): 67–75.
66. G.Kudo (1991) Effects of snow-free period on the phenology of alpine plants inhabiting snow patches. Arctic and Alpine Research23(4): 436–443.
67. A.M.LambertA.J.Miller-RushingD.W.Inouye (2010) Changes in snowmelt date and summer precipitation affect the flowering phenology of Erythronium Grandiflorum (Glacier Lilly: Lilliaceae). American Journal of Botany97(9): 1431–1437.
68. R.LatifovicD.Pouliot (2007) Analysis of climate change impacts on lake ice phenology in Canada using the historical satellite data record. Remote Sensing of Environment106(4): 492–507.
69. J.LaubeT.H.SparksN.Estrella. (2014) Does humidity trigger tree phenology? Proposal for an air based framework for bud development in spring. New Phytologist202(2): 350–355.
70. A.LednevaA.J.Miller-RushingR.B.Primack. (2004) Climate change as reflected in a naturalist’s diary, Middleborough, Massachusetts. The Wilson Bulletin116(3): 224–231.
71. L.LiuY.Hu (2012) Response of spring phenology to climate change across Tibetan Plateau. In: the second international conference on remote sensing, environment and transportation engineering, Nanjing, 1–4.
72. P.LuQ.YuJ.Liu. (2006) Advance of tree-flowering dates in response to urban climate change. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology138(1–4): 120–131.
73. J.C.LuvallW.A.SpriggE.Levetin. (2012) Use of MODIS satellite data to evaluate Juniperus spp. pollen phenology to support a pollen dispersal model, PREAM, to support public health allergy alerts. American Geophysical UnionGC21B–0953.
74. A.Mayer (2010) Phenology and citizen science. BioScience60(3): 172–175.
75. M.L.McCormackT.S.AdamsE.A.H.Smithwick. (2014) Variability in root production, phenology, and turnover rate among 12 temperate tree species. Ecology95(8): 2224–2235.
76. A.M.McKinneyP.J.CaraDonnaD.W.Inouye. (2012). Asynchronous changes in phenology of migrating Broad-tailed Hummingbirds and their early-season nectar resources. Ecology93(3): 1987–1993.
77. N.MeierT.RutishauserC.Pfister. (2007) Grape harvest dates as a proxy for Swiss April to August temperature reconstructions back to AD 1480. Geophysical Research Letters34(20): 1–6.
78. E.K.MelaasM.A.FriedlZ.Zhu (2013) Detecting interannual variation in deciduous broadleaf forest using Landsat TM/ETM + data. Remote Sensing of Environment132: 176–185.
79. J.MemmottP.G.CrazeN.M.Waser. (2007) Global warming and the disruption of plant-pollinator interactions. Ecology Letters10(8): 1–8.
80. A.Menzel (2002) Phenology: its importance to the global change community, an editorial comment. Climatic Change54(4): 379–385.
81. A.MenzelT.H.SparksN.Estrella. (2006a) Altered geographic and temporal variability in phenology in response to climate change. Global Ecology and Biogeography15(5): 498–504.
82. A.MenzelT.H.SparksN.Estrella. (2006c) European phenological response to climate change matches the warming pattern. Global Change Biology12(10): 1969–1976.
83. A.J.Miller-RushingD.W.Inouye (2009) Variation in the impact of climate change on flowering phenology and abundance: An examination of two pairs of closely related wildflower species. American Journal of Botany96(10): 1821–1829.
84. A.J.Miller-RushingD.W.InouyeR.B.Primack (2008) How well do first flowering dates measure plant responses to climate change? The effects of population size and sampling frequency. Journal of Ecology96(6): 1289–1296.
85. A.J.Miller-RushingT.KatsukiR.B.Primack. (2007) Impact of global warming on a group of related species and their hybrids: cherry tree (Rosaceae) flowering at Mt. Takao, Japan. American Journal of Botany94(9): 1470–1478.
86. A.J.Miller-RushingR.B.Primack (2008) Global warming and flowering times in Thoreau’s Concord: A community perspective. Ecology89(2): 332–341.
87. E.G.MoghadamP.HosseiniA.Mokhtarian (2009) Blooming phenology and self-incompatibility of some commercial cherry (Prunus Avium L.) cultivars in Iran. Scientia Horticulturae123(1): 29–33.
88. X.MorinJ.RoyL.Sonie. (2010) Changes in leaf phenology of three European oak species in response to experimental climate change. New Phytologist186(4): 900–910.
89. J.T.MorisetteA.D.RichardsonA.K.Knapp. (2009) Tracking the rhythm of the seasons in the face of global change: phenological research in the 21st century. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment7(5): 253–260.
90. S.MoulinL.KergoatN.Viovy. (1997) Global-scale assessment of vegetation phenology using NOAA/AVHRR satellite measurements. Journal of Climate10(6): 1154–1170.
91. Ø.NordliF.E.WielgolaskiA.K.Bakken. (2008) Regional trends for bud burst and flowering of woody plants in Norway as related to climate change. International Journal of Biometeorology52(7): 625–639.
92. S.F.OberbauerS.C.ElmendorfT.G.Troxler. (2013) Phenological response of tundra plants to background climate variation tested using the International Tundra Experiment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society368(1624): 1–13.
93. Z.A.PanchenR.B.PrimackT.Aniśko. (2012) Herbarium specimens, photographs and field observations show Philadelphia area plants are responding to climate change. American Journal of Botany99(4): 751–756.
94. I.W.ParkM.D.Schwartz (2014) Long-term herbarium records reveal temperature-dependant changes in flowering phenology in the southeastern USA. International Journal of Biometeorology59(3): 347–355.
95. C.Parmesan (2007) Influences of species, latitudes and methodologies on estimates of phenological response to climate warming. Global Change Biology13(9): 1860–1872.
96. C.ParmesanT.L.RootM.R.Willig (2000) Impacts of extreme weather and climate on terrestrial biota. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society81(3): 443–450.
97. C.ParmesanG.Yohe (2003) A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature421: 37–42.
98. J.PeñuelasI.FilellaX.Zhang. (2004) Complex spatiotemporal phenological shifts as a response to rainfall changes. New Phytologist161(3): 837–846.
99. J.PeñuelasT.RutishauserI.Filella (2009) Phenology feedbacks on climate change. Science324(5929): 887.
100. N.PettorelliJ.O.VikA.Mysterud. (2005) Using the satellite-derived NDVI to assess ecological responses to environmental change. Trends in Ecology and Evolution20(9): 503–510.
101. C.PolgarA.GallinatR.B.Primack (2014) Drivers of leaf-out phenology and their implications for species invasions: Insights from Thoreau’s Concord. New Phytologist202(4): 106–115.
102. C.A.PolgarR.B.Primack (2011) Leaf-out phenology of temperate woody plants: From trees to ecosystems. New Phytologist191(4): 926–941.
103. C.A.PolgarR.B.Primack (2013) Leaf out phenology in temperate forests. Biodiversity Science21(1): 111–116.
104. R.B.PrimackH.HiguchiA.J.Miller-Rushing (2009b) The impact of climate change on cherry trees and other species in Japan. Biological Conservation142(9): 1943–1949.
105. R.B.PrimackI.IbáñezH.Higuchi. (2009a) Spatial and interspecific variability in phenological responses to warming temperatures. Biological Conservation142(11): 2569–2577.
106. P.B.ReichR.Borchert (1984) Water stress and tree phenology in a tropical dry forest in the lowlands of Costa Rica. Journal of Ecology72(1): 61–74.
107. C.ReyerS.LeuzingerA.Rammig. (2013) A plant’s perspective of extremes: terrestrial plant responses to changing climate variability. Global Change Biology19(1): 75–89.
108. P.M.RichD.D.BreshearsA.B.White (2008) Phenology of mixed woody-herbaceous ecosystems following extreme events: Net and differential responses. Ecology89(2): 342–352.
109. A.D.RichardsonR.S.AndersonM.A.Arain. (2012) Terrestrial biosphere models need better representation of vegetation phenology: Results from the North American Carbon Program Site Synthesis. Global Change Biology18(2): 566–584.
110. A.D.RichardsonB.H.BraswellD.Y.Hollinger. (2009) Near-surface remote sensing of spatial and temporal variation in canopy phenology. Ecological Applications19(6): 1417–1428.
111. A.D.RichardsonJ.P.JenkinsB.H.Braswell. (2007) Use of digital webcam images to track spring green-up in a deciduous broadleaf forest. Oecologia152(2): 323–334.
112. A.D.RichardsonT.F.KeenanM.Migliavacca. (2013) Climate change, phenology, and phenological control of vegetation feedbacks to the climate system. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology169: 156–173.
113. J.R.RigbyA.Porporato (2008) Spring frost risk in a changing climate. Geophysical Research Letters35(12): 12703–12707.
114. C.RosenzweigD.KarolyM.Vicarelli. (2008) Attributing physical and biological impacts to anthropogenic climate change. Nature453(15): 353–358.
115. T.RötzerF.M.Chmielewski (2001) Phenological maps of Europe. Climate Research18(3): 249–257.
116. T.RutishauserJ.LuterbacherF.Jeanneret. (2007) A phenology-based reconstruction of interannual changes in past spring seasons. Journal of Geophysical Research112(G4): 1–15.
117. F.SaavedraD.W.InouyeM.V.Price. (2003) Changes in flowering and abundance of Delphinium nuttallianum (Ranunculaceae) in response to a subalpine climate warming experiment. Global Change Biology9(6): 885–894.
118. M.Schwartz (1999) Advancing to full bloom: Planning phenological research for the 21st century. International Journal of Biometeorology42(3): 113–118.
119. M.D.Schwartz (2013) Phenology: An Integrative Environmental Science. Dortrecht: Kluwer Academic Press.
120. M.D.SchwartzR.AhasA.Aasa (2006) Onset of spring starting earlier across the Northern Hemisphere. Global Change Biology12: 343–351.
121. M.D.SchwartzB.C.Reed (1999) Surface phenology and satellite sensor-derived onset of greenness: An initial comparison. International Journal of Remote Sensing20(17): 3451–3457.
122. M.D.SchwartzB.E.Reiter (2000) Changes in North American spring. International Journal of Climatology20(8): 929–932.
123. M.ShenG.ZhangN.Cong. (2014) Increasing altitudinal gradient of spring vegetation phenology during the last decade on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology189: 71–80.
124. O.SonnentagK.HufkensC.Teshera-Sterne. (2012) Digital repeat photography for phenological research in forest ecosystems. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology152: 1–19.
125. A.SouriauP.Yiou (2012). Grape harvest dates for checking NAO paleoreconstructions. Geophysical Research Letters28(20): 3895–3896.
126. D.SpanoC.CesaraccioP.Duce. (1999) Phenological stages of natural species and their use as climate indicators. International Journal of Biometeorology42(3): 124–133.
127. T.H.SparksP.D.Carey (1995) The responses of species to climate over two centuries: An analysis of the Marsham phenological record, 1736–1947. Journal of Ecology83(2): 321–329.
128. T.H.SparksP.J.CroxtonN.Collinson. (2005) Examples of phenological change, past and present, in UK farming. Annuals of Applied Biology146(4): 531–537.
129. T.H.SparksE.P.JeffreeC.E.Jeffree (2000) An examination of the relationship between flowering times and temperature at the national scale using long-term phenological records from the UK. International Journal of Biometeorology44(2): 82–87.
130. N.C.StensethA.Mysterud (2002) Climate, changing phenology, and other life history traits: non-linearity and match-mismatch to the environment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences99(21): 13379–13381.
131. R.StöckliP.L.Vidale (2004) European plant phenology and climate as seen in a 20-year AVHRR land-surface parameter dataset. International Journal of Remote Sensing25(17): 3303–3330.
132. F.TaoM.YokozawaY.Xu. (2006) Climate changes and trends in phenology and yields of field crops in China, 1981-2000. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology138(1–4): 82–92.
133. J.D.TarpleyS.R.SchneiderR.L.Money (1984) Global vegetation indices from the NOAA-7 meteorological satellite. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology23(3): 491–494.
134. J.D.Thomson (2010) Flowering phenology, fruiting success and progressive deterioration of pollination in an early-flowering geophyte. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society365(1555): 3187–3199.
135. W.J.D.Van LeeuwenK.K.HartfieldM.Miranda. (2013). Trends and ENSO/AAO driven variability in NDVI derived productivity and phenology alongside the Andes Mountains. Remote Sensing5(3): 1177–1203.
136. A.J.H.Van VlietR.S.de GrootY.Bellens. (2003) The European phenological network. International Journal of Biometeorology47(4): 202–212.
137. M.E.VisserC.Both (2005) Shifts in phenology due to global climate change: The need for a yardstick. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Biological Sciences272(1581): 2561–2569.
138. M.E.VisserL.J.M.Holleman (2001) Warmer springs disrupt the synchrony of oak and winter moth phenology. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London268(1464): 289–294.
139. M.D.WalkerR.C.IngersollP.J.Webber (1995) Effects of interannual climate variation on phenology and growth of two alpine forbs. Ecology76(4): 1067–1083.
140. A.Walkovszky (1998) Changes in phenology of the locust tree (Robinia pseudoacacia) in Hungary. International Journal of Biometeorology41(4): 155–160.
141. G.R.WaltherE.PostP.Convey. (2002) Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature416: 389–395.
142. H.L.WangY.T.GanR.Y.Wang. (2008) Phenological trends in winter wheat and spring cotton in response to climate changes in northwest China. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology148(8–9): 1242–1251.
143. T.WangC.OttleS.Peng. (2014) The influence of local spring temperature variance on temperature sensitivity of spring phenology. Global Change Biology20(5): 1473–1480.
144. M.A.WhiteK.M.De BeursK.Didan. (2009) Intercomparison, interpretation, and assessment of spring phenology in North America estimated from remote sensing for 1982-2006. Global Change Biology15(10): 2335–2359.
145. M.A.WhiteP.E.ThorntonS.W.Running (1997) A continental phenology model for monitoring vegetation responses to interannual climatic variability. Global Biogeochemical Cycles11(2): 217–234.
146. F.E.Wielgolaski (2003) Climatic factors governing plant phenological phases along a Norwegian fjord. International Journal of Biometeorology47(4): 213–220.
147. F.E.WielgolaskiD.W.Inouye (2013) high latitude climates. In: M.D.Schwartz (ed.) Phenology: An Integrative Environmental Science. Dortrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, 175–194.
148. L.WingateA.D.RichardsonJ.F.Weltzin. (2008) Keeping an eye on the carbon balance: Linking canopy development and net ecosystem exchange using a webcam. Fluxletter1(2): 14–17.
149. A.M.WolkovichB.I.CookJ.M.Allen. (2012) Warming experiments underpredict plant phenological responses to climate change. Nature485: 494–497.
150. P.A.WookeyA.N.ParsonsJ.M.Welker. (1993) Comparative responses of phenology and reproductive development to simulated environmental change in sub-arctic and high arctic plants. Oikos67(3): 490–502.
151. S.J.WrightC.P.Van Schaik (1994) Light and the phenology of tropical trees. The American Naturalist143(1): 192–199.
152. C.ZavalloniJ.A.AndresenJ.A.Flore (2006) Phenological models of flower bud stages and fruit growth of ‘Montmorency’ sour cherry based on growing degree-day accumulation. Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science131(5): 601–607.
153. X.ZhangM.A.FriedlC.B.Schaaf. (2003) Monitoring vegetation phenology using MODIS. Remote Sensing of the Environment84(3): 471–475.
154. M.ZhaoC.PengW.Ziang. (2013) Plant phenological modelling and its application in global climate change research: Overview and future challenges. Environmental Review21(1): 1–14.