Sedative-hypnotics are widely abused by drivers apprehended for driving under the influence of drugs

Therapeutic Drug Monitoring

Volumn 37, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 339-346

  Kriikku, Pirkko ^a,b   Hurme, Hannes ^a,c   Wilhelm, Lars ^d   Rintatalo, Janne ^e   Hurme, Jukka ^a   Kramer, Jan ^d,f   Ojanperä, Ilkka ^b  

^a Vita Laboratory   (Finland)

^b UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI   (Finland)

^c UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN FINLAND   (Finland)

^d LADR GmbH MVZ Dr Kramer and Colleagues   (Germany)

^e National Bureau of Investigation Finland   (Finland)

^f UNIVERSITY OF LÜBECK   (Germany)

Author keywords

driving; drug abuse; DUID; sedative hypnotics; sleeping medication

Indexed keywords

4 METHYLAMPHETAMINE; ALCOHOL; AMPHETAMINE; BUPRENORPHINE; CENTRAL STIMULANT AGENT; DESIGNER DRUG; METHYLONE; MIDAZOLAM; NITRAZEPAM; OPIATE; TEMAZEPAM; TETRAHYDROCANNABINOL; ZOLPIDEM; ZOPICLONE; HYPNOTIC SEDATIVE AGENT; STREET DRUG;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE DISTRIBUTION; AGED; ALCOHOL BLOOD LEVEL; ARTICLE; BLOOD SAMPLING; CAR DRIVING; DRIVER; DRUG ABUSE; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; FEMALE; FINLAND; HUMAN; LIMIT OF QUANTITATION; MALE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEX RATIO; AGE; BLOOD; DRUNKEN DRIVING; MARIJUANA ABUSE; MIDDLE AGED; PREVALENCE; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; VERY ELDERLY; YOUNG ADULT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE FACTORS; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM STIMULANTS; DRIVING UNDER THE INFLUENCE; ETHANOL; FEMALE; FINLAND; HUMANS; HYPNOTICS AND SEDATIVES; MALE; MARIJUANA ABUSE; MIDDLE AGED; PREVALENCE; STREET DRUGS; SUBSTANCE ABUSE DETECTION; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84929949831     PISSN: 01634356     EISSN: 15363694     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/FTD.0000000000000138     Document Type: Article

References (55)

1. Drake CL, Roehrs T, Roth T. Insomnia causes, consequences, and therapeutics: an overview. Depress Anxiety. 2003;18:163-176.
2. Mellinger GD, Balte r MB, Uhlenhuth EH. Insomnia and its treatment: prevalence and correlates. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1985;42:225-232.
3. Finnish national recommendations for the treatment of insomnia [in Finnish]. Avai lable at: http://www.kaypahoito.fi/web/kh/suositukset/naytaartikkeli/tunnus/hoi50067. Accessed March 25, 2013.
4. Hublin C. Unettomuus [in Finnish]. Duodecim. 2010;126:563-565.
5. Partinen M, Hublin C. Epidemiology of sleep disorders. In: Kryger M, Roth T, Dement WC, eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. New York, NY: Saunders; 2000:558-579.
6. The Cr iminal Code of Finland, Chapter 23 (Rikoslaki 39/1889). Available in English at: http://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/1889/en18890039.pdf. Accessed September 22, 2014.
7. Christophersen A, Ceder G, Kristinsson J, et al. Drugged driving in the Nordic countries: a comparative study between five countries. Forensic Sci Int. 1999;106:173-190.
8. Holmgren A, Holmgren P, Kugelberg FC, et al. Predominance of illicit drugs and poly-drug use among drug-impaired drivers in Sweden. Traffic Inj Prev. 2007;8:361-367.
9. Wiese Simonsen K, Steentoft A, Bernhoft IM, et al. Psychoactive substances in seriously injured drivers in Denmark. Forensic Sci Int. 2013; 224:44-50.
10. Jones AW, Holmgren A. What non-Alcohol drugs are used by drinking drivers in Sweden? Toxicological results from ten years of forensic blood samples. J Safety Res. 2012;43:151-156.
11. van Laar MW, Volkerts ER, van Laar M. Driving and benzodiazepine use. CNS Drugs. 1998;10:383-396.
12. Bramness JG, Skurtveit S, Mørland J. Clinical impairment of benzodiazepines-relation between benzodiazepine concentrations and impairment in apprehended drivers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002;68:131-141.
13. Engeland A, Skurtveit S, Mørland J. Risk of road traffic accidents associated with the prescription of drugs: a registry-based cohort study. Ann Epidemiol. 2007;17:597-602.
14. Movig K, Mathijssen M, Nagel P, et al. Psychoactive substance use and the risk of motor vehicle accidents. Accid Anal Prev. 2004;36:631-636.
15. Smink BE, Egberts AC, Lusthof KJ, et al. The relationship between benzodiazepine use and traffic accidents. CNS Drugs. 2010;24:639-653.
16. Orriols L, Philip P, Moore N, et al. Benzodiazepine-like hypnotics and the associated risk of road traffic accidents. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2011; 89:595-601.
17. Gustavsen I, Bramness JG, Skurtveit S, et al. Road traffic accident risk related to prescriptions of the hypnotics zopiclone, zolpidem, flunitrazepam and nitrazepam. Sleep Med. 2008;9:818-822.
18. de Gier JJ, Alvarez FJ, Mercier-Guyon C, et al. Prescribing and dispensing guidelines for medicinal drugs affecting driving performance. In: Verster JC, Pandi-Perumal SR, Ramaekers JG, et al, eds. Drugs, Driving and Traffic Safety. Basel, Switzerland: Birkäuser Verlag; 2009:121-134.
19. Medicinal drugs affecting driving performance. Available at: http://www. icadts.nl/reports/medicinaldrugs2.pdf. Accessed March 25, 2013.
20. Verster JC, Veldhuijzen DS, Volkerts ER. Residual effects of sleep medication on driving ability. Sleep Med Rev. 2004;8:309-325.
21. Report on drug consumption in Finland in 2013 by the Finnish Medicines Agency [in Finnish]. Available at : http://raportit.nam.fi/raportit/kulutus/ev-laakekulutus.htm. Accessed June 3, 2014.
22. Partinen M, Hirvonen K, Hublin C, et al. Effects of after-midnight intake of zolpidem and temazepam on d riving ability in women with nonorganic insomnia. Sleep Med. 2003;4:553.
23. Andersen T, Lingjaerde O. Nitrazepam (mogadon) as a sleep-inducing agent. Br J Psychiatry. 1969;115:1393-1397.
24. O'Hanlon JF, Volkerts E. Hypnotics and actual driving performance. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 1986;74:95-104.
25. Monti JM, Debellis J, Gratadoux E, et al. Sleep laboratory study of the effects of midazolam in insomniac patients. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1982; 21:479-484.
26. Lichtenwalner M, Tully R. A fatality involving zolpidem. J Anal Toxicol. 1997;21:567-569.
27. De Haas SL, Schoemaker RC, Van Gerven JMA, et al. Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationship of zolpidem in healthy subjects. J Psyc hopharmacol. 2010;24:1619-1629.
28. Sanger DJ. The pharmacology and mechanisms of action of new generation, non-benzodiazepine hypnotic agents. CNS Drugs. 2004;18:9-15.
29. Verster JC, Volkerts ER, Schreuder A, et al. Residual effects of middleof-the-night administration of zaleplon and zolpidem on driving ability, memory functions, and psychomotor performance. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2002;22:576-583.
30. Buscemi N, Vandermeer B, Friesen C, et al. The efficacy and safety of drug treatments for chronic insomnia in adults: a meta-Analysis of RCTs. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22:13 35-1350.
31. Gustavsen I, Al-Sammurraie M, Mørland J, et al. Impairment related to blood drug concentrations of zopiclone and zolpidem compared to alcohol in apprehended drivers. Accid Anal Prev. 2009;4 1:462-466.
32. Baselt RC. Drug Effects on Psychomotor Performance. Foster City, CA: Biomedical Publications; 2001.
33. Summaries of product characteristics (SPC) for human medicinal products: Tenox (temazepam) 2013, Dormicum (midazolam) 2013, Imovane (zopiclon) 2014, Stella (zolpidem) 2014, Insomin (nitrazepam) 2008. The Internet pag es of the Finnish Medicines Agency. Available at: http://www.fimea.fi/medicines/fimeaweb. Accessed July 21, 2014.
34. Hiemke C, Baumann P, Bergemann N, et al. AGNP consensus guidelines for therapeutic drug monitoring in psychiatry: update 2011. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2011;44:195-235.
35. Häkkinen M, Launiainen T, Vuori E, et al. Benzodiazepines and alcohol are associated with cases of fatal buprenorphine poisoning. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2012;68:301-309.
36. Kriikku P, Wilhelm L, Rintatalo J, et al. Phenazepam abuse in Finland: findings from apprehended drivers, post-mortem cases and police confiscations. Forensic Sci Int. 2012;220:111-117.
37. Peters FT, Drummer OH, Musshoff F. Validation of new methods. Forensic Sci Int. 2007;165:216-224.
38. Peters F,Hartung M,Herbold M,et al. Anhang B zur Richtlinie der GTFCh zur Qualitätssicherung bei forensisch-toxikologischen Untersu-chungen: anforderungen an die Validierung von Analysenmethoden [in German] Toxichem Krimtech. 2009, 76, 185-208.
39. DIN 32645, Chemische Analytik-Nachweis-, Erfassungs-und Bestimmungsgrenze, in: Chemical analysis-Decision limit, detection limit and determination limit under repeatability conditions-Terms , methods, evaluation. Berlin, Germany: Beuth Verlag; 1994.
40. Kratzsch C, Tenberken O, Peters FT, et al. Screening, libraryassisted identification and validated quantification of 23 benzodiazepines, flumazenil, zaleplone, zolpidem and zopiclone in plasma by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization. J Mass Spectrom. 2004;39:856-872.
41. Sikdar S, Ruben SM. Zopiclone abuse among polydrug users. Addiction. 1996;91:285-286.
42. Ruben SM, Morrison CL. Temazepam misuse in a group of injecting drug users. Br J Addict. 1992;87:1387-1392.
43. Fraser AD. Use and abuse of the benzodiazepines. Ther Drug Monit. 1998;20:481-489.
44. Jones AW, Holmgren A. Concentrations of zolpidem and zopiclone in venous blood samples from impaired drivers compared with femoral blood from forensic autopsies. Forensic Sci Int. 2012;222:118-123.
45. Bocca ML, Marie S, Lelong-Boulouard V, et al. Zolpidem and zopiclone impair sim ilarly monotonous driving performance after a single nighttime intake in aged subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2011;214:699-706.
46. Karjalainen KK, Lintonen TP, Impinen AO, et al. Poly-drug findings in drugged driving cases during 1977-2007. J Subst Use. 2010;15:143-156.
47. Blencowe T, Raaska K, Lillsunde P. Benzodiazepines and sedative-hypnotics in blood of drivers under the influence and their association with other common illegal drug use and national sales figures. Ther Drug Monit. 2011;33:64-71.
48. Griffiths RR, Weerts EM. Benzodiazepine self-Administration in humans and laboratory animals-implications for problems of long-term use and abuse. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1997;134:1-37.
49. Blennow G, Romelsjo A, Leifman H, et al. Sedatives and hypnotics in Stockholm: social factors and kinds of use. Am J Public Health. 1994;84: 242-246.
50. Kripke DF. Chronic hypnotic use: deadly risks, doubtful benefit: review article. Sleep Med Rev. 2000;4:5-20.
51. Tiihonen M, Nordlund S, Nousiainen S, et al. Apteekkifarmaseuttien käsitykset unettomuuden hoidosta ja unilääkkeiden käytöstäSuomessa [in Finnish]. Dosis. 2013;29:75-83.
52. Koski A, OjanperäI, Vuori E. Alcohol and benzodiazepines in fatal poisonings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2002;26:956-959.
53. Jones AW, Kugelberg FC, Holmgren A, et al. Drug poisoning deaths in Sweden show a predominance of ethanol in mono-intoxications, adverse drug-Alcohol interactions and poly-drug use. Forensic Sci Int. 2011;206:43-51.
54. O'Brien CP. Benzodiazepine use, abuse, and dependence. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:28-33.
55. Hajak G, Müller W, Wittchen H, et al. Abuse and dep endence potential for the non?benzodiazepine hypnotics zolpidem and zopiclone: a review of case reports and epidemiological data. Addiction. 2003;98:1371-1378.