Phenazepam abuse in Finland: Findings from apprehended drivers, post-mortem cases and police confiscations

Forensic Science International

Volumn 220, Issue 1-3, 2012, Pages 111-117

  Kriikku, Pirkko ^a   Wilhelm, Lars ^b   Rintatalo, Janne ^c   Hurme, Jukka ^a   Kramer, Jan ^b,d   Ojanperä, Ilkka ^e  

^a Vita Laboratory   (Finland)

^b LADR GmbH MVZ Dr Kramer and Kollegen   (Germany)

^c National Bureau of Investigation Finland   (Finland)

^d UNIVERSITY OF LÜBECK   (Germany)

^e UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI   (Finland)

Author keywords

DUID; GC MS; LC MS MS; Phenazepam; Post mortem toxicology

Indexed keywords

NARCOTIC ANALGESIC AGENT; PHENAZEPAM;

ADULT; ARTICLE; AUTOPSY; BLOOD LEVEL; CAR DRIVER; CAUSE OF DEATH; CONTROLLED STUDY; CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR; DRUG ABUSE; FEMALE; FINLAND; FORENSIC IDENTIFICATION; FORENSIC MEDICINE; HUMAN; LEGAL EVIDENCE; LEGAL PROCEDURE; LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY; LIQUID LIQUID EXTRACTION; MALE; MASS FRAGMENTOGRAPHY; MEDICOLEGAL ASPECT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SOLID PHASE EXTRACTION; TANDEM MASS SPECTROMETRY;

EID: 84862683353     PISSN: 03790738     EISSN: 18726283     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.02.006     Document Type: Article

References (35)

1. Buckley N.A., Dawson A.H., Whyte I.M., O'Connell D.L. Relative toxicity of benzodiazepines in overdose. BMJ 1995, 310:219.
2. Karjalainen K.K., Lintonen T.P., Impinen A.O., Lillsunde P.M., Ostamo A.I. Poly- drug findings in drugged driving cases during 1977-2007. J. Subst. Use 2010, 15:143-156.
3. Jones A.W. Concentrations of scheduled prescription drugs in blood of impaired drivers: considerations for interpreting the results. Ther. Drug Monit. 2007, 29:248-260.
4. Gjerde H., Christophersen A.S., Normann P.T., Mørland J. Toxicological investigations of drivers killed in road traffic accidents in Norway during 2006-2008. Forensic Sci. Int. 2011, 212:102-109.
5. (accessed 15.11.2011). http://www.fimea.fi/classification/principles_of_classification.
6. Zakusov V.V. A new psychotropic phenazepam preparation. Pharm. Chem. J. 1979, 13:1094-1097.
7. Mykkänen S., Gunnar T., Ariniemi K., Lillsunde P., Krasnova R. Quantitation of phenazepam in blood by GC-MS in positive drug-driving cases in Finland. SOFT Meeting Presentation 2004.
8. Zherdev V.P., Caccia S., Grattini S., Ekonomov A.L. Species differences in phenazepam kinetics and metabolism. Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet. 1982, 7:191-196.
9. Finnish Criminal Law, Chapter 23.
10. Lillsunde P., Gunnar T. Drugs and driving; the Finnish perspective. Bulletin on Narcotics vol LVII, Nos 1 and 2, Science in Drug Control 2005, pp. 213-230.
11. Mrozkowska J., Vinge E., Borna C. Missbruk av fenazepam-ny företeelse i Sverige. Läkartidningen 2009, 8:516-517.
12. Maskell P.D., De Paoli G., Seetohul L.N., Pounder D.J. Phenazepam is currently being misused in the UK. BMJ 2011, 343:d4207.
13. Bailey K., Richards-Waugh L., Clay D., Gebhardt M., Mahmoud H., Kraner J.C. Fatality involving the ingestion of phenazepam and poppy seed tea. J. Anal. Toxicol. 2010, 34:527-532.
14. Peters F.T., Drummer O.H., Musshoff F. Validation of new methods. Forensic Sci. Int. 2007, 165:216-224.
15. Richtlinien der GTFCh zur Qualitätssicherung forensisch-toxikologischer Untersuchungen vom 01.06.2009.
16. DIN EN ISO/IEC 32645: 1994.
17. Gunnar T., Ariniemi K., Lillsunde P. Fast gas chromatography-negative-ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry with microscale volume sample preparation for the determination of benzodiazepines and alpha-hydroxy metabolites, zaleplon and zopiclone in whole blood. J. Mass Spectrom. 2006, 41:741-754.
18. M. Häkkinen, T. Launiainen, E. Vuori, I. Ojanperä, Benzodiazepines and alcohol are associated with cases of fatal buprenorphine poisoning, Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (2011), . doi:10.1007/s00228-011-1122-4.
19. Launiainen T., Broms U., Keskitalo-Vuokko K., Pitkäniemi J., Pelander A., Kaprio J., Ojanperä I. Nicotine, alcohol and drug findings in young adults in a population-based post mortem database. Nicotine Tob. Res. 2011, 13:763-771.
20. Gunnar T., Mykkänen S., Ariniemi K., Lillsunde P. Validated semiquantitative/quantitative screening of 51 drugs in whole blood as silylated derivatives by gas chromatography-selected ion monitoring mass spectrometry and gas chromatography electron capture detection. J. Chromatogr. B 2004, 806:205-219.
21. Kriikku P., Wilhelm L., Schwarz O., Rintatalo J. New designer drug of abuse: 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Findings from apprehended drivers in Finland. Forensic Sci. Int. 2011, 210:195-200.
22. Couch R.A.F., Madhavaram H. Phenazepam and cannabinomimetics sold as herbal highs in New Zealand. Drug Testing Anal. 2011, 10.1002/dta.349.
23. Holmgren A., Holmgren P., Kugelberg F.C., Jones A.W., Ahlner J. Predominance of illicit drugs and poly-drug use among drug-impaired drivers in Sweden. Traffic Inj. Prev. 2007, 8:339-345.
24. Kuitunen T. Drug and ethanol effects on the clinical test for drunkenness: single doses of ethanol, hypnotic drugs and antidepressant drugs. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1994, 75:91-98.
25. Jones A.W. Age- and gender-related differences in blood amphetamine concentrations in apprehended drivers: lack of association with clinical evidence of impairment. Addiction 2007, 102:1085-1091.
26. Bramness J.G., Skurtveit S., Mørland J. Clinical impairment of benzodiazepines - relation between benzodiazepine concentrations and impairment in apprehended drivers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002, 68:131-141.
27. Baselt R.C. Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man 2011, Biomedical Publications, Foster City, CA, pp. 1320-1321. 9th ed.
28. Luzhnikov E.A., Sukhodolova G.N., Ostapenko Y.N., Kovalenko L.A., Dolginov D.M. Clinical toxicometry of acute poisonings by fenazepam in older children. Clin. Toxicol. 2010, 48:282.
29. Karjalainen K., Lintonen T., Impinen A., Lillsunde P., Mäkelä P., Rahkonen O., Haukka J., Ostamo A. Socio-economic determinants of drugged driving - a register-based study. Addiction 2011, 106:1448-1459.
30. van Laar M.W., Volkerts E.R. Driving and benzodiazepine use. Evidence that they do not mix. CNS Drugs 1998, 10:383-396.
31. Dassanayake T., Michie P., Carter G., Jones A. Effects of benzodiazepines, antidepressants and opioids on driving. A systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological and experimental evidence. Drug Saf. 2011, 34:125-156.
32. Smink B.E., Egberts A.C.G., Lusthof K.J., Uges D.R.A., de Gier J.J. The relationship between benzodiazepine use and traffic accidents. CNS Drugs 2010, 24:639-653.
33. Dubois S., Bédard M., Weaver B. The impact of benzodiazepines on safe driving. Traffic Inj. Prev. 2008, 9:404-413.
34. Longo M.C., Hunter C.E., Lokan R.J., White J.M., White M.A. The Prevalence of alcohol, cannabinoids, benzodiazepines and stimulants amongst injured drivers and their role in driver culpability. Part II: the relationship between drug prevalence and drug concentration, and driver culpability. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2000, 32:623-632.
35. Hammelgarn B., Suissa S., Huang A., Boivin J.F., Pinard G. Benzodiazepine use and the risk of motor vehicle crash in the elderly. JAMA 1997, 278:27-31.