Evolution of the mating system in colonizing plants

Molecular Ecology

Volumn 24, Issue 9, 2015, Pages 2018-2037

  Pannell, John R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LAUSANNE   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Baker's law; dioecy; metapopulation; outcrossing; pollen limitation; range expansion; reproductive assurance; self fertilization; sex allocation

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MODEL; ECOLOGY; EVOLUTION; INBREEDING; INTRODUCED SPECIES; PLANT; PLANT DISPERSAL; PLANT PHYSIOLOGY; REPRODUCTION; SELF FERTILIZATION;

BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; ECOLOGY; INBREEDING; INTRODUCED SPECIES; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; PLANT DISPERSAL; PLANT PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA; PLANTS; REPRODUCTION; SELF-FERTILIZATION;

EID: 84928583825     PISSN: 09621083     EISSN: 1365294X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/mec.13087     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Abbott RJ, Forbes DG, (1993) Outcrossing rate and self-incompatibility in the colonising species Senecio squalidus. Heredity, 71, 155-159.
2. Abbott RJ, Gomes MF, (1989) Population genetic structure and outcrossing rate of Arabidopsis thaliana (L) Heynh. Heredity, 62, 411-418.
3. Akimoto J, Fukuhara T, Kikuzawa K, (1999) Sex ratios and genetic variation in a functionally androdioecious species, Schizopepon bryoniaefolius (Cucurbitaceae). American Journal of Botany, 86, 880-886.
4. Allard RW, (1965) Genetic systems associated with colonizing ability in predominantly self-pollinated species. In: The Genetics of Colonizing Species (eds, Baker HG, Stebbins GL,), pp. 49-75. Academic Press, London.
5. Allee WC, Emersen AE, Park O, Park T, Schmidt KP, (1949) Principles of Animal Ecology. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia.
6. Auld JR, de Casas RR, (2013) The correlated evolution of dispersal and mating-system traits. Evolutionary Biology, 40, 185-193.
7. Baker HG, (1955) Self-compatibility and establishment after "long-distance" dispersal. Evolution, 9, 347-348.
8. Baker HG, (1965) Characteristics and modes of origin of weeds. In: The Genetics of Colonising Species (eds, Baker HG, Stebbins GL,), pp. 141-172. Academic Press, London.
9. Baker HG, (1967) Support for Baker's Law-as a rule. Evolution, 21, 853-856.
10. Baker HG, Stebbins GL, (eds.) (1965) The Genetics of Colonizing Species. Academic Press, London.
11. Barrett SCH, (1988) The evolution, maintenance, and loss of self-incompatibility systems. In: Plant Reproductive Ecology (ed., Lovett Doust J,), pp. 98-124. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
12. Barrett SCH, (1996) The reproductive biology and genetics of island plants. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences, 351, 725-733.
13. Barrett SCH, (2002) The evolution of plant sexual diversity. Nature Reviews Genetics, 3, 274-284.
14. Barrett SCH, (2011) Why reproductive systems matter for the invasion biology of plants. In: Fifty Years of Invasion Biology: The Legacy of Charles Elton (ed., Richardson DM,), pp. 175-193. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.
15. Barrett SCH, Husband BC, (1990) Variation in outcrossing rates in Eichhornia paniculata: the role of demographic and reproductive factors. Plant Species Biology, 5, 41-55.
16. Barrett SCH, Pannell JR, (1999) Metapopulation dynamics and mating-system evolution in plants. In: Molecular Systematics and Plant Evolution (eds, Hollingsworth P, Bateman R, Gornall R,), pp. 74-100. Chapman and Hall, London.
17. Bernardello G, Anderson GJ, Stuessy TF, Crawford DJ, (2006) The angiosperm flora of the Archipelago Juan Fernandez (Chile): origin and dispersal. Canadian Journal of Botany-Revue Canadienne De Botanique, 84, 1266-1281.
18. Brennan AC, Harris SA, Hiscock SJ, (2003) The population genetics of sporophytic self-incompatibility in Senecio squalidus L. (Asteraceae): avoidance of mating constraints imposed by low S-allele number. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences, 358, 1047-1050.
19. Brennan AC, Harris SA, Hiscock SJ, (2006) The population genetics of sporophytic self-incompatibility in Senecio squalidus L. (Asteraceae): the number, frequency, and dominance interactions of S alleles across its British range. Evolution, 60, 213-224.
20. Brennan AC, Harris SA, Hiscock SJ, (2013) The population genetics of sporophytic self-incompatibility in three hybridizing Senecio (Asteraceae) species with contrasting population histories. Evolution, 67, 1347-1367.
21. Busch JW, (2011) Demography, pollination and Baker's law. Evolution, 65, 1511-1513.
22. Busch JW, Delph LF, (2012) The relative importance of reproductive assurance and automatic selection as hypotheses for the evolution of self-fertilization. Annals of Botany, 109, 553-562.
23. Busch JW, Schoen DJ, (2008) The evolution of self-incompatibility when mates are limiting. Trends in Plant Science, 13, 128-136.
24. Byers DL, Waller DM, (1999) Do plant populations purge their genetic load? Effects of population size and mating history on inbreeding depression. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 30, 479-513.
25. Carlquist S, (1966) The biota of long distance dispersal. Evolution, 20, 30-48.
26. Carr GD, Powell EA, Kyhos DW, (1986) Self-incompatibility in the Hawaiin Madiinae (Compositae): an exception to Baker's Rule. Evolution, 40, 430-434.
27. Charlesworth D, (1984) Androdioecy and the evolution of dioecy. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 23, 333-348.
28. Charlesworth D, Charlesworth B, (1978) A model for the evolution of dioecy and gynodioecy. The American Naturalist, 112, 975-997.
29. Charlesworth D, Charlesworth B, (1987) Inbreeding depression and its evolutionary consequences. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 18, 273-288.
30. Charlesworth D, Willis JH, (2009) The genetics of inbreeding depression. Nature Reviews Genetics, 10, 783-796.
31. Charlesworth D, Morgan MT, Charlesworth B, (1990) Inbreeding depression, genetic load, and the evolution of outcrossing rates in a multilocus system with no linkage. Evolution, 44, 1469-1489.
32. Cheptou PO, Massol F, (2009) Pollination fluctuations drive evolutionary syndromes linking dispersal and mating system. The American Naturalist, 174, 46-55.
33. Clobert J, Danchin E, Dhondt AA, Nichols JD, (eds) (2001) Dispersal. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
34. Cody ML, Overton JM, (1996) Short-term evolution of reduced dispersal in island plant populations. Journal of Ecology, 84, 53-61.
35. Crnokrak P, Barrett SCH, (2002) Purging the genetic load: a review of the experimental evidence. Evolution, 56, 2347-2358.
36. Cruden RW, (1977) Pollen-ovule ratios: a conservative index of breeding systems in flowering plants. Evolution, 31, 32-46.
37. Darwin C, (1859) The Origin of Species, 1st edn. Murray, London.
38. Darwin C, (1876) The Effects of Cross- and Self-fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom. John Murray, London.
39. Delph LF, (2003) Sexual dimorphism in gender plasticity and its consequences for breeding system evolution. Evolution and Development, 5, 34-39.
40. Delph LF, Wolf DE, (2005) Evolutionary consequences of gender plasticity in genetically dimorphic breeding systems. New Phytologist, 166, 119-128.
41. Dorken ME, Pannell JR, (2008) Density-dependent regulation of the sex ratio in an annual plant. The American Naturalist, 171, 824-830.
42. Dornier A, Munoz F, Cheptou P-O, (2008) Allee effect and self-fertilization in hermaphrodites: reproductive assurance in a structured metapopulation. Evolution, 62, 2558-2569.
43. Eckert CG, Samis KE, Lougheed SC, (2008) Genetic variation across species' geographical ranges: the central-marginal hypothesis and beyond. Molecular Ecology, 17, 1170-1188.
44. Ehlers BK, Bataillon T, (2007) 'Inconstant males' and the maintenance of labile sex expression in subdioecious plants. New Phytologist, 174, 194-211.
45. Ehrendorfer F, (1965) Dispersal mechanisms, genetic systems, and colonizing abilities in some flowering plant families. In: The Genetics of Colonising Species (eds, Baker HG, Stebbins GL,), pp. 331-351. Academic Press, London.
46. Elam DR, Ridley CE, Goodell K, Ellstrandt NC, (2007) Population size and relatedness affect fitness of a self-incompatible invasive plant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 549-552.
47. Eppley SM, Pannell JR, (2007a) Density-dependent self-fertilization and male versus hermaphrodite siring success in an androdioecious plant. Evolution, 61, 2349-2359.
48. Eppley SM, Pannell JR, (2007b) Sexual systems and measures of occupancy and abundance in an annual plant: testing the metapopulation model. The American Naturalist, 169, 20-28.
49. Fausto JA, Eckhart VM, Geber MA, (2001) Reproductive assurance and the evolutionary ecology of self-pollination in Clarkia xantiana (Onagraceae). American Journal of Botany, 88, 1794-1800.
50. Fisher RA, (1941) Average excess and average effect of a gene substitution. Annals of Eugenics, 11, 53-63.
51. Foxe JP, Slotte T, Stahl E, Neuffer B, Hurka H, Wright SI, (2009) Recent speciation associated with the evolution of selfing in Capsella. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 5241-5245.
52. Fritsch P, Rieseberg LH, (1992) High outcrossing rates maintain male and hermaphrodite individuals in populations of the flowering plant Datisca glomerata. Nature, 359, 633-636.
53. Goldberg EE, Igic B, (2012) Tempo and mode in plant breeding system evolution. Evolution, 66, 3701-3709.
54. Goodwillie C, Kalisz S, Eckert CG, (2005) The evolutionary enigma of mixed mating systems in plants: occurrence, theoretical explanations, and empirical evidence. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics, 36, 47-79.
55. Grafen A, (1984) Natural selection, kin selection and group selection. In: Behavioral Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach (eds, Krebs JR, &, Davies NB,), pp. 62-84. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.
56. Guo YL, Bechsgaard JS, Slotte T, et al,. (2009) Recent speciation of Capsella rubella from Capsella grandiflora, associated with loss of self-incompatibility and an extreme bottleneck. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 5246-5251.
57. Hamilton WD, (1967) Extraordinary sex ratios. Science, 156, 477-488.
58. Harder LD, Barrett SCH, (eds.) (2006) Ecology and Evolution of Flowers. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
59. Herlihy CR, Eckert CG, (2002) Genetic cost of reproductive assurance in a self-fertilizing plant. Nature, 416, 320-323.
60. Hesse E, Pannell JR, (2011) Density-dependent pollen limitation and reproductive assurance in a wind-pollinated herb with contrasting sexual systems. Journal of Ecology, 99, 1531-1539.
61. Hiscock SJ, McInnis SM, (2003) The diversity of self-incompatibility systems in flowering plants. Plant Biology, 5, 23-32.
62. Hollenbeck VG, Weeks SC, Gould W, Zucker N, (2002) Maintenance of androdioecy in the freshwater shrimp Eulimnadia texana: sexual encounter rates and outcrossing success. Behavioral Ecology, 13, 561-570.
63. Igic B, Busch JW, (2013) Is self-fertilization an evolutionary dead end? New Phytologist, 198, 386-397.
64. Igic B, Bohs L, Kohn JR, (2006) Ancient polymorphism reveals unidirectional breeding system shifts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 1359-1363.
65. Ison JL, Wagenius S, (2014) Both flowering time and distance to conspecific plants affect reproduction in Echinacea angustifolia, a common prairie perennial. Journal of Ecology, 102, 920-929.
66. Kirkpatrick M, Barton NH, (1997) Evolution of a species' range. The American Naturalist, 150, 1-23.
67. Lande R, Schemske DW, (1985) The evolution of self-fertilization and inbreeding depression in plants: I. Genetic models. Evolution, 39, 24-40.
68. Leducq JB, Gosset CC, Poiret M, Hendoux F, Vekemans X, Billiard S, (2010) An experimental study of the S-Allee effect in the self-incompatible plant Biscutella neustriaca. Conservation Genetics, 11, 497-508.
69. Levin DA, (1996) The evolutionary significance of pseudo-self-fertility. The American Naturalist, 148, 321-332.
70. Lewontin RC, (1965) Selection for colonizing ability. In: The Genetics of Colonizing Species (eds, Baker HG, Stebbins GL,), pp. 77-91. Academic Press, London.
71. Lloyd DG, (1975) The maintenance of gynodioecy and androdioecy in angiosperms. Genetica, 45, 325-339.
72. Lloyd DG, (1979) Some reproductive factors affecting the selection of self-fertilization in plants. The American Naturalist, 113, 67-79.
73. Lloyd DG, (1992) Self- and cross-fertilization in plants. II. The selection of self-fertilization. International Journal of Plant Science, 153, 370-380.
74. Lloyd DG, Bawa KS, (1984) Modification of the gender of seed plants in varying conditions. Evolutionary Biology, 17, 255-338.
75. Longhurst AR, (1955) Evolution in the Notostraca. Evolution, 9, 84-86.
76. Mackiewicz M, Tatarenkov A, Taylor DS, Turner BJ, Avise JC, (2006) Extensive outcrossing and androdioecy in a vertebrate species that otherwise reproduces as a self-fertilizing hermaphrodite. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 9924-9928.
77. Massol F, Cheptou P-O, (2011a) Evolutionary syndromes linking dispersal and mating system: the effect of autocorrelation in pollination conditions. Evolution, 65, 591-598.
78. Massol F, Cheptou P-O, (2011b) When should we expect the evolutionary association of self-fertilization and dispersal? Evolution, 65, 1217-1220.
79. McMullen CK, (1987) Breeding systems of selected Galapagos-island angiosperms. American Journal of Botany, 74, 1694-1705.
80. Moeller DA, Geber MA, (2005) Ecological context of the evolution of self-pollination in Clarkia xantiana: population size, plant communities, and reproductive assurance. Evolution, 59, 786-799.
81. Nathan R, Muller-Landau HC, (2000) Spatial patterns of seed dispersal, their determinants and consequences for recruitment. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 15, 278-285.
82. Olivieri I, Couvet D, Gouyon PH, (1990) The genetics of transient populations: research at the metapopulation level. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 5, 207-210.
83. Olivieri I, Gouyon PH, Gilpin ME, (1997) Evolution of migration rate and other traits: the metapopulation effect. In: Metapopulation Biology: Ecology, Genetics, and Evolution (ed., Hanski I,), pp. 293-323. Academic Press, San Diego.
84. Pannell J, (1997a) The maintenance of gynodioecy and androdioecy in a metapopulation. Evolution, 51, 10-20.
85. Pannell J, (1997b) Widespread functional androdioecy in Mercurialis annua L. (Euphorbiaceae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 61, 95-116.
86. Pannell JR, (2001) A hypothesis for the evolution of androdioecy: the joint influence of reproductive assurance and local mate competition in a metapopulation. Evolutionary Ecology, 14, 195-211.
87. Pannell JR, (2002) The evolution and maintenance of androdioecy. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 33, 397-425.
88. Pannell JR, Barrett SCH, (1998) Baker's Law revisited: reproductive assurance in a metapopulation. Evolution, 52, 657-668.
89. Pannell JR, Barrett SCH, (2001) Effects of population size and metapopulation dynamics on a mating system polymorphism. Theoretical Population Biology, 59, 145-155.
90. Pannell JR, Charlesworth B, (1999) Neutral genetic diversity in a metapopulation with recurrent local extinction and recolonization. Evolution, 53, 664-676.
91. Pannell JR, Charlesworth B, (2000) Effects of metapopulation processes on measures of genetic diversity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences, 355, 1851-1864.
92. Pannell JR, Dorken ME, Pujol B, Berjano R, (2008) Gender variation and transitions between sexual systems in Mercurialis annua (Euphorbiaceae). International Journal of Plant Sciences, 169, 129-139.
93. Peischl S, Dupanloup I, Kirkpatrick M, Excoffier L, (2013) On the accumulation of deleterious mutations during range expansions. Molecular Ecology, 22, 5972-5982.
94. Perrin N, Goudet J, (2001) Inbreeding, kinship, and the evolution of natal dispersal. In: Dispersal (eds, Clobert J, Danchin E, Dhondt AA, Nichols JD,), pp. 123-142. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
95. Petit RJ, Brewer S, Bordacs S, et al,. (2002) Identification of refugia and post-glacial colonisation routes of European white oaks based on chloroplast DNA and fossil pollen evidence. Forest Ecology and Management, 156, 49-74.
96. Platt A, Horton M, Huang YS, et al,. (2010) The scale of population structure in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plos Genetics, 6, e1000843.
97. Porcher E, Lande R, (2005) The evolution of self-fertilization and inbreeding depression under pollen discounting and pollen limitation. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 18, 497-508.
98. Pujol B, Pannell JR, (2008) Reduced responses to selection after species range expansion. Science, 321, 96.
99. Pujol B, Zhou SR, Sahchez-Vilas J, Pannell JR, (2009) Reduced inbreeding depression after species range expansion. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 15379-15383.
100. Randle AM, Slyder JB, Kalisz S, (2009) Can differences in autonomous selfing ability explain differences in range size among sister-taxa pairs of Collinsia (Plantaginaceae)? An extension of Baker's Law. New Phytologist, 183, 618-629.
101. Rodger JG, van Kleunen M, Johnson SD, (2013) Pollinators, mates and Allee effects: the importance of self-pollination for fecundity in an invasive lily. Functional Ecology, 27, 1023-1033.
102. Ronce O, Olivieri I, (1997) Evolution of reproductive effort in a metapopulation with local extinctions and ecological succession. The American Naturalist, 150, 220-249.
103. Ronce O, Olivieri I, Cobert J, Danchin E, (2001) Perspectives on the study of dispersal evolution. In: Dispersal (eds, Clobert J, Danchin E, Dhondt AA, Nichols JD,), pp. 123-142. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
104. Salisbury EJ, (1953) A changing flora as shown in the study of weeds of arable lands and waste places. In: The Changing Flora of Britain (ed., Lousley JE,), pp. 130-139. Botanical Society of the British Isles, Oxford.
105. Sassaman C, Weeks SC, (1985) Adaptation to ephemeral ponds in the Conchostracan Eulimnadia texana. American Zoologist, 25, A61.
106. Schierup MH, (1998) The number of self-incompatibility alleles in a finite, subdivided population. Genetics, 149, 1153-1162.
107. Schoen DJ, Busch JW, (2008) On the evolution of self-fertilization in a metapopulation. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 169, 119-127.
108. Sexton JP, McIntyre PJ, Angert AL, Rice KJ, (2009) Evolution and ecology of species range limits. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 40, 415-436.
109. Slatkin M, (1977) Gene flow and genetic drift in a species subject to frequent local extinction. Theoretical Population Biology, 12, 253-262.
110. Slikas B, Olson SL, Fleischer RC, (2002) Rapid, independent evolution of flightlessness in four species of Pacific Island rails (Rallidae): an analysis based on mitochondrial sequence data. Journal of Avian Biology, 33, 5-14.
111. Stebbins GL, (1950) Variation and Evolution in Plants. Columbia University Press, New York.
112. Stebbins GL, (1957) Self-fertilization and population variability in the higher plants. The American Naturalist, 91, 337-354.
113. Stebbins GL, (1965) Colonizing species of the native California flora. In: The Genetics of Colonising Species (eds, Baker HG, Stebbins GL,), pp. 173-191. Academic Press, London.
114. Stebbins GL, (1974) Flowering Plants: Evolution above the Species Level. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
115. Stephens PA, Sutherland WJ, Freckleton RP, (1999) What is the Allee effect? Oikos, 87, 185-190.
116. Stephenson AG, Good SV, Vogler DW, (2000) Interrelationships among inbreeding depression, plasticity in the self-incompatibility system, and the breeding system of Campanula rapunculoides L. (Campanulaceae). Annals of Botany, 85, 211-219.
117. Takayama S, Isogai A, (2005) Self-incompatibility in plants. Annual Review of Plant Biology, Annual Reviews, Palo Alto, 56, 467-489.
118. Tsuchimatsu T, Suwabe K, Shimizu-Inatsugi R, et al,. (2010) Evolution of self-compatibility in Arabidopsis by a mutation in the male specificity gene. Nature, 464, 1342-1346.
119. Tsuchimatsu T, Kaiser P, Yew C-L, Bachelier JB, Shimizu KK, (2012) Recent loss of self-incompatibility by degradation of the male component in allotetraploid Arabidopsis kamchatica. Plos Genetics, 8, e1002838.
120. Uyenoyama MK, (1986) Inbreeding and the cost of meiosis: the evolution of selfing in populations practicing biparental inbreeding. Evolution, 40, 388-404.
121. Uyenoyama MK, Waller DM, (1991) Coevolution of self-fertilization and inbreeding depression. 3. Homozygous lethal mutations at multiple loci. Theoretical Population Biology, 40, 173-210.
122. Uyenoyama MK, Zhang Y, Newbigin E, (2001) On the origin of self-incompatibility haplotypes: transition through self-compatible intermediates. Genetics, 157, 1805-1817.
123. Van Kleunen M, Johnson SD, (2007) Effects of self-compatibility on the distribution range of invasive European plants in North America. Conservation Biology, 21, 1537-1544.
124. Van Kleunen M, Manning JC, Pasqualetto V, Johnson SD, (2008) Phylogenetically independent associations between autonomous self-fertilization and plant invasiveness. The American Naturalist, 171, 195-201.
125. Vekemans X, Schierup MH, Christiansen FB, (1998) Mate availability and fecundity selection in multi-allelic self- incompatibility systems in plants. Evolution, 52, 19-29.
126. Wade MJ, McCauley DE, (1988) Extinction and recolonization: their effects on the genetic differentiation of local populations. Evolution, 42, 995-1005.
127. Wagenius S, Lonsdorf E, Neuhauser C, (2007) Patch aging and the S-allee effect: breeding system effects on the demographic response of plants to habitat fragmentation. The American Naturalist, 169, 383-397.
128. Ward M, Johnson SD, Zalucki MP, (2012) Modes of reproduction in three invasive milkweeds are consistent with Baker's Rule. Biological Invasions, 14, 1237-1250.
129. Weeks SC, Benvenuto C, Reed SK, (2006) When males and hermaphrodites coexist: a review of androdioecy in animals. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 46, 449-464.
130. West SA, (2009) Sex Allocation. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
131. West SA, Griffin AS, Gardner A, (2007) Social semantics: altruism, cooperation, mutualism, strong reciprocity and group selection. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 20, 415-432.
132. Whitlock MC, McCauley DE, (1990) Some population genetic consequences of colony formation and extinction: genetic correlations within founding groups. Evolution, 44, 1717-1724.
133. Wright S, (1940) Breeding structure of populations in relation to speciation. The American Naturalist, 74, 232-248.
134. Wright S, (1964) The distribution of self-sterility alleles in populations. Evolution, 18, 609-619.
135. Wright SI, Kalisz S, Slotte T, (2013) Evolutionary consequences of self-fertilization in plants. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, 280, 20130133.
136. Young AG, Pickup M, (2010) Low S-allele numbers limit mate availability, reduce seed set and skew fitness in small populations of a self-incompatible plant. Journal of Applied Ecology, 47, 541-548.
137. Young AG, Brown AHD, Murray BG, Thrall PH, Miller CH, (2000) Genetic erosion, restricted mating and reduced viability in fragmented populations of the endangered grassland herb Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides. In: Genetics, Demography and Viability of Fragmented Populations (eds, Young AG, Clarke GM,), pp. 335-359. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.