What's new in the treatment of serious MRSA infection?

Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases

Volumn 27, Issue 6, 2014, Pages 471-478

  Holmes, Natasha E ^a   Howden, Benjamin P ^a,b,c  

^a AUSTIN HEALTH   (Australia)

^b PETER DOHERTY INSTITUTE FOR INFECTION AND IMMUNITY   (Australia)

^c MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Antibiotic resistance; Antibiotic treatment; Lipoglycopeptide; Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus; Oxazolidinone

Indexed keywords

CEFTAROLINE; CEFTOBIPROLE; DALBAVANCIN; DAPTOMYCIN; LINEZOLID; ORITAVANCIN; RIFAMPICIN; TEDIZOLID; TEICOPLANIN; TELAVANCIN; VANCOMYCIN; ACETAMIDE DERIVATIVE; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; GLYCOPEPTIDE; OXAZOLIDINONE DERIVATIVE; TETRAZOLE DERIVATIVE;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; BACTERIAL SKIN DISEASE; HOSPITAL ACQUIRED PNEUMONIA; HUMAN; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTION; MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION; MORTALITY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PNEUMONIA; REVIEW; STAPHYLOCOCCUS INFECTION; TREATMENT FAILURE; TREATMENT INDICATION; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; DRUG ADMINISTRATION ROUTE; DRUG COMBINATION; DRUG EFFECTS; IMMUNOLOGY; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; MICROBIAL SENSITIVITY TEST; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; SKIN DISEASES, BACTERIAL; STAPHYLOCOCCAL INFECTIONS;

ACETAMIDES; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; CEPHALOSPORINS; COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS; DRUG ADMINISTRATION ROUTES; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; GLYCOPEPTIDES; HUMANS; METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; MICROBIAL SENSITIVITY TESTS; OXAZOLIDINONES; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; SKIN DISEASES, BACTERIAL; STAPHYLOCOCCAL INFECTIONS; TETRAZOLES; VANCOMYCIN;

EID: 84926321828     PISSN: 09517375     EISSN: 14736527     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/QCO.0000000000000101     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. van Hal SJ, Paterson DL. New Gram-positive antibiotics: better than vancomycin? Curr Opin Infect Dis 2011; 24:515-520.
2. Mediavilla JR, Chen L, Mathema B, Kreiswirth BN. Global epidemiology of community-associated methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA). Curr Opin Microbiol 2012; 15:588-595.
3. Williamson DA, Coombs GW, Nimmo GR. Staphylococcus aureus 'Down Under': contemporary epidemiology of S. Aureus in Australia, New Zealand, and the South West Pacific. Clin Microbiol Infect 2014; 20:597-604.
4. Chen CJ, Huang YC. New epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus infection in Asia. Clin Microbiol Infect 2014; 20:605-623.
5. Chuang YY, Huang YC. Molecular epidemiology of community-associated meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Asia. Lancet Infect Dis 2013; 13:698-708.
6. Tokajian S. New epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus infections in the Middle East. Clin Microbiol Infect 2014; 20:624-628.
7. Stegger M, Aziz M, Chroboczek T, et al. Genome analysis of Staphylococcus aureus ST291, a double locus variant of ST398, reveals a distinct genetic lineage. PLoS One 2013; 8:e63008.
8. Price LB, Stegger M, Hasman H, et al. Staphylococcus aureus CC398: host adaptation and emergence of methicillin resistance in livestock. MBio 2012; 3:e00305-e00311.
9. Fluit AC. Livestock-associated Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18:735-744.
10. Wendlandt S, Kadlec K, Fessler AT, et al. Resistance phenotypes and genotypes of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from broiler chickens at slaughter and abattoir workers. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013; 68:2458-2463.
11. Harrison EM, Paterson GK, Holden MT, et al. Whole genome sequencing identifies zoonotic transmission of MRSA isolates with the novel mecA homologue mecC. EMBO Mol Med 2013; 5:509-515.
12. Petersen A, Stegger M, Heltberg O, et al. Epidemiology of methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus carrying the novel mecC gene in Denmark corroborates a zoonotic reservoir with transmission to humans. Clin Microbiol Infect 2013; 19:E16-22.
13. Dantes R, Mu Y, Belflower R, et al. National burden of invasive methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus infections, United States, 2011. JAMA Intern Med 2013; 173:1970-1978.
14. Stryjewski ME, Corey GR. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an evolving pathogen. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58 (Suppl 1):S10-S19.
15. van Hal SJ, Lodise TP, Paterson DL. The clinical significance of vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentration in Staphylococcus aureus infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54:755-771.
16. Holmes NE, Johnson PD, Howden BP. Relationship between vancomycinresistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus, high vancomycin MIC, and outcome in serious S. Aureus infections. J Clin Microbiol 2012; 50:2548-2552.
17. Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52:e18-e55.
18. Aguado JM, San Juan R, Lalueza A, et al. High vancomycin MIC and complicated methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17:1099-1102.
19. Holmes NE, Turnidge JD, Munckhof WJ, et al. Antibiotic choice may not explain poorer outcomes in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and high vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentrations. J Infect Dis 2011; 204:340-347.
20. Holmes NE, Turnidge JD, Munckhof WJ, et al. Genetic and molecular predictors of high vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentration in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia isolates. J Clin Microbiol 2014; 52:3384-3393.
21. Corey GR, Jones RN. Ceftaroline applications for therapy in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55 (Suppl 3):S171-S172.
22. Poon H, Chang MH, Fung HB. Ceftaroline fosamil: a cephalosporin with activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Ther 2012; 34:743-765.
23. File TM Jr, Wilcox MH, Stein GE. Summary of ceftaroline fosamil clinical trial studies and clinical safety. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55 (Suppl 3):S173-S180.
24. Arshad S, Hartman P, Zervos MJ. A novel treatment option for MRSA pneumonia: ceftaroline fosamil-yielding new hope in the fight against a persistent infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 12:727-729.
25. Pasquale TR, Tan MJ, Trienski TL, File TM Jr. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia patients treated with ceftaroline: retrospective case series of 10 patients. J Chemother 2013. [Epub ahead of print]
26. Lin JC, Aung G, Thomas A, et al. The use of ceftaroline fosamil in methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis and deep-seated MRSA infections: a retrospective case series of 10 patients. J Infect Chemother 2013; 19:42-49.
27. Casapao AM, Davis SL, Barr VO, et al. Large retrospective evaluation of the effectiveness and safety of ceftaroline fosamil therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:2541-2546.
28. Tattevin P, Boutoille D, Vitrat V, et al. Salvage treatment of methicillinresistant staphylococcal endocarditis with ceftaroline: a multicentre observational study. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69:2010-2013.
29. Polenakovik HM, Pleiman CM. Ceftaroline for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: case series and review of the literature. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2013; 42:450-455.
30. Pfaller MA, Flamm RK, Sader HS, Jones RN. Ceftaroline activity against bacterial organisms isolated from acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections in United States medical centers. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2014; 78:422-428.
31. Flamm RK, Sader HS, Jones RN. Ceftaroline activity against organisms isolated from respiratory tract infections in USA hospitals: results from the AWARE Program. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2014; 78:437-442.
32. Werth BJ, Steed ME, Kaatz GW, Rybak MJ. Evaluation of ceftaroline activity against heteroresistant vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-intermediate methicillin-resistant S. Aureus strains in an in vitro pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model: exploring the 'seesaw effect'. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:2664-2668.
33. Werth BJ, Barber KE, Ireland CE, Rybak MJ. Evaluation of ceftaroline, vancomycin, daptomycin, or ceftaroline plus daptomycin against daptomycinnonsusceptible methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an in vitro pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model of simulated endocardial vegetations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:3177-3181.
34. Werth BJ, Sakoulas G, Rose WE, et al. Ceftaroline increases membrane binding and enhances the activity of daptomycin against daptomycin-nonsusceptible vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus in a pharmacokinetic/ pharmacodynamic model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:66-73.
35. Rodvold KA, McConeghy KW. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus therapy: past, present, and future. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58 (Suppl 1):S20-S27.
36. Review of older and newer anti-MRSA agents including spectrum of activity and summary of clinical trial data 36. Jain R, Chan JD, Rogers L, et al. High incidence of discontinuations due to adverse events in patients treated with ceftaroline. Pharmacotherapy 2014; 34:758-763.
37. Griffiths CL, Gutierrez KC, Pitt RD, Lovell RD. Eosinophilic pneumonia induced by ceftaroline. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2014; 71:403-406.
38. Desai KR, Burdette SD, Polenakovik HM, et al. Ceftaroline-induced eosinophilic pneumonia. Pharmacotherapy 2013; 33:e166-e169.
39. Nicholson SC, Welte T, File TM Jr, et al. A randomised, double-blind trial comparing ceftobiprole medocaril with ceftriaxone with or without linezolid for the treatment of patients with community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalisation. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2012; 39:240-246.
40. Awad SS, Rodriguez AH, Chuang YC, et al. A phase 3 randomized doubleblind comparison of ceftobiprole medocaril versus ceftazidime plus linezolid for the treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 2014.
41. Muller AE, Punt N, Mouton JW. Exposure to ceftobiprole is associated with microbiological eradication and clinical cure in patients with nosocomial pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:2512-2519.
42. Basilea Pharmaceutica. Ceftobiprole. Available at: http://www.basilea.com/Development/Ceftobiprole/. [Accessed 28 July 2014]
43. Basilea Pharmaceutica. Basilea's antibiotic ceftobiprole obtains regulatory approval in Europe for pneumonia. Available at: http://www.basilea.com/ News-and-Media/Basileas-antibiotic-ceftobiprole-obtains-regulatory-ap proval-in-Europe-for-pneumonia/d32d8fcb-a9df-6a85-069f-9ef7ed599a8e. [Accessed 27 July 2014]
44. Basilea Pharmaceutica. Basilea to launch Zevtera/Mabelio (ceftobiprole medocaril) in Europe through a commercial services provider. Available at: http://www.basilea.com/News-and-Media/Basilea-to-launch-Zevtera-Mabelio-ceftobiprole-medocaril-in-Europe-through-a-commercial-services-provider/7dcfb10b-c4ef-5a82-8359-f88b1f36cb96. [Accessed 27 July 2014]
45. Locke JB, Zurenko GE, Shaw KJ, Bartizal K. Tedizolid for the management of human infections: in vitro characteristics. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58 (Suppl 1):S35-S42.
46. Rybak JM, Barber KE, Rybak MJ. Current and prospective treatments for multidrug-resistant Gram positive infections. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2013; 14:1919-1932.
47. Shaw KJ, Barbachyn MR. The oxazolidinones: past, present, and future. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2011; 1241:48-70.
48. Moellering RC Jr. Tedizolid: a novel oxazolidinone for Gram-positive infections. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58 (Suppl 1):S1-S3.
49. Rodriguez-Avial I, Culebras E, Betriu C, et al. In vitro activity of tedizolid (TR-700) against linezolid-resistant staphylococci. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67:167-169.
50. Thomson KS, Goering RV. Activity of tedizolid (TR-700) against well characterized methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains of diverse epidemiological origins. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:2892-2895.
51. Prokocimer P, De Anda C, Fang E, et al. Tedizolid phosphate vs linezolid for treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections: the ESTABLISH-1 randomized trial. JAMA 2013; 309:559-569.
52. European Medicines Agency. Applications for new human medicines under evaluation by the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use July 2014. Available at: http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en-GB/document-library/Report/2014/07/WC500169655.pdf. [Accessed 27 July 2014]
53. Das D, Tulkens PM, Mehra P, et al. Tedizolid phosphate for the management of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections: safety summary. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58 (Suppl 1):S51-S57.
54. Saravolatz LD, Stein GE, Johnson LB. Telavancin: a novel lipoglycopeptide. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49:1908-1914.
55. Rubinstein E, Lalani T, Corey GR, et al. Telavancin versus vancomycin for hospital-acquired pneumonia due to Gram-positive pathogens. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52:31-40.
56. Corey GR, Kollef MH, Shorr AF, et al. Telavancin for hospital-acquired pneumonia: clinical response and 28-day survival. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:2030-2037.
57. Stryjewski ME, Lentnek A, O'Riordan W, et al. A randomized Phase 2 trial of telavancin versus standard therapy in patients with uncomplicated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: the ASSURE study. BMC Infect Dis 2014; 14:289.
58. Stryjewski ME, Graham DR, Wilson SE, et al. Telavancin versus vancomycin for the treatment of complicated skin and skin-structure infections caused by gram-positive organisms. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46:1683-1693.
59. Burke SL, Rose WE. New pharmacological treatments for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2014; 15:483-491.
60. Jones RN, Sader HS, Flamm RK. Update of dalbavancin spectrum and potency in the USA: report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2013; 75:304-307.
61. Citron DM, Tyrrell KL, Goldstein EJ. Comparative in vitro activities of dalbavancin and seven comparator agents against 41 Staphylococcus species cultured from osteomyelitis infections and 18 VISA and hVISA strains. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2014; 79:438-440.
62. Boucher HW, Wilcox M, Talbot GH, et al. Once-weekly dalbavancin versus daily conventional therapy for skin infection. N Engl J Med 2014; 370:2169-2179.
63. Arhin FF, Sarmiento I, Belley A, et al. Effect of polysorbate 80 on oritavancin binding to plastic surfaces: implications for susceptibility testing. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52:1597-1603.
64. Ambrose PG, Drusano GL, Craig WA. In vivo activity of oritavancin in animal infection models and rationale for a new dosing regimen in humans. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54 (Suppl 3):S220-S228.
65. Tice A. Oritavancin: a new opportunity for outpatient therapy of serious infections. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54 (Suppl 3):S239-S243.
66. Karaoui LR, El-Lababidi R, Chahine EB. Oritavancin: an investigational lipoglycopeptide antibiotic. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2013; 70:23-33.
67. Mendes RE, Sader HS, Flamm RK, et al. Oritavancin activity against Staphylococcus aureus causing invasive infections in U.S. and European hospitals: a 5-year international surveillance program. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:2921-2924.
68. Lin G, Pankuch G, Appelbaum P, Kosowska-Shick K. Antistaphylococcal activity of oritavancin and its synergistic effect in combination with other antimicrobial agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014. [Epub ahead of print]
69. Arhin FF, Sarmiento I, Moeck G. In vitro activities of oritavancin and comparators against meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates harbouring the novel mecC gene. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2014; 44:65-68.
70. Corey GR, Kabler H, Mehra P, et al. Single-dose oritavancin in the treatment of acute bacterial skin infections. N Engl J Med 2014; 370:2180-2190.
71. Askari E, Tabatabai SM, Arianpoor A, Nasab MN. vanA-positive vancomycinresistant Staphylococcus aureus: systematic search and review of reported cases. Infect Dis Clin Pract (Baltim Md) 2013; 21:91-93.
72. Moravvej Z, Estaji F, Askari E, et al. Update on the global number of vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) strains. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2013; 42:370-371.
73. Melo-Cristino J, Resina C, Manuel V, et al. First case of infection with vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Europe. Lancet 2013; 382:205.
74. Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization. Epidemiological alert: vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus 27 June 2013. Available at: http://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com-docman&-task=doc-view&gid=22187&Itemid=. [Accessed 21 November 2013]
75. Rossi F, Diaz L, Wollam A, et al. Transferable vancomycin resistance in a community-associated MRSA lineage. N Engl J Med 2014; 370:1524-1531.
76. Chang HJ, Hsu PC, Yang CC, et al. Influence of teicoplanin MICs on treatment outcomes among patients with teicoplanin-treated methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: a hospital-based retrospective study. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67:736-741.
77. Chen KY, Chang HJ, Hsu PC, et al. Relationship of teicoplanin MICs to treatment failure in teicoplanin-treated patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2013; 46: 210-216.
78. Gu B, Kelesidis T, Tsiodras S, et al. The emerging problem of linezolidresistant Staphylococcus. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013; 68:4-11.
79. Mendes RE, Flamm RK, Hogan PA, et al. Summary of linezolid activity and resistance mechanisms detected during the 2012 LEADER surveillance program for the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:1243-1247.
80. Mendes RE, Deshpande LM, Jones RN. Linezolid update: stable in vitro activity following more than a decade of clinical use and summary of associated resistance mechanisms. Drug Resist Updat 2014; 17:1-12.
81. Shore AC, Brennan OM, Ehricht R, et al. Identification and characterization of the multidrug resistance gene cfr in a Panton-Valentine leukocidin-positive sequence type 8 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus IVa (USA300) isolate. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54:4978-4984.
82. Humphries RM, Pollett S, Sakoulas G. A current perspective on daptomycin for the clinical microbiologist. Clin Microbiol Rev 2013; 26:759-780.
83. Gasch O, Camoez M, Dominguez MA, et al. Emergence of resistance to daptomycin in a cohort of patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus persistent bacteraemia treated with daptomycin. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69:568-571.
84. Yang SJ, Mishra NN, Rubio A, Bayer AS. Causal role of single nucleotide polymorphisms within the mprF gene of Staphylococcus aureus in daptomycin resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:5658-5664.
85. Bayer AS, Schneider T, Sahl HG. Mechanisms of daptomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: role of the cell membrane and cell wall. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2013; 1277:139-158.
86. Gould IM, Miro JM, Rybak MJ. Daptomycin: the role of high-dose and combination therapy for Gram-positive infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2013; 42:202-210.
87. Howden BP, Davies JK, Johnson PD, et al. Reduced vancomycin susceptibility in Staphylococcus aureus, including vancomycin-intermediate and heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate strains: resistance mechanisms, laboratory detection, and clinical implications. Clin Microbiol Rev 2010; 23:99-139.
88. Howden BP, McEvoy CR, Allen DL, et al. Evolution of multidrug resistance during Staphylococcus aureus infection involves mutation of the essential two component regulator WalKR. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002359.
89. Bertsche U, Yang SJ, Kuehner D, et al. Increased cell wall teichoic acid production and D-alanylation are common phenotypes among daptomycinresistant methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) clinical isolates. PLoS One 2013; 8:e67398.
90. Peleg AY, Miyakis S, Ward DV, et al. Whole genome characterization of the mechanisms of daptomycin resistance in clinical and laboratory derived isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One 2012; 7:e28316.
91. Kelley PG, Gao W, Ward PB, Howden BP. Daptomycin nonsusceptibility in vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus (VISA) and heterogeneous-VISA (hVISA): implications for therapy after vancomycin treatment failure. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66:1057-1060.
92. Saravolatz SN, Martin H, Pawlak J, et al. Ceftaroline-heteroresistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:3133-3136.
93. Mendes RE, Tsakris A, Sader HS, et al. Characterization of methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus displaying increased MICs of ceftaroline. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67:1321-1324.
94. Alm RA, McLaughlin RE, Kos VN, et al. Analysis of Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolates with reduced susceptibility to ceftaroline: an epidemiological and structural perspective. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69:2065-2075.
95. Abbott I, Jenney A, Jeremiah C et al. Ceftaroline resistance amongst multidrug-resistant MRSA clinical isolates. Poster PO1.25. 15th Annual Scientific Meeting Antimicrobials 2014; Melbourne, Australia. 20-22 February 2014.
96. Cui L, Isii T, Fukuda M, et al. A RpoB mutation confers dual hetero-resistance to daptomycin and vancomycin in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54:5222-5233.
97. Gao W, Cameron DR, Davies JK, et al. The RpoB H481Y rifampicin resistance mutation and an active stringent response reduce virulence and increase resistance to innate immune responses in Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Dis 2013; 207:929-939.
98. Ortwine JK, Werth BJ, Sakoulas G, Rybak MJ. Reduced glycopeptide and lipopeptide susceptibility in Staphylococcus aureus and the 'seesaw effect': taking advantage of the back door left open? Drug Resist Updat 2013; 16:73-79.
99. Sakoulas G, Okumura CY, Thienphrapa W, et al. Nafcillin enhances innate immune-mediated killing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Mol Med 2014; 92:139-149.
100. Proctor RA. Challenges for a universal Staphylococcus aureus vaccine. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54:1179-1186.
101. Daum RS, Spellberg B. Progress toward a Staphylococcus aureus vaccine. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54:560-567.
102. Fowler VG, Allen KB, Moreira ED, et al. Effect of an investigational vaccine for preventing Staphylococcus aureus infections after cardiothoracic surgery: a randomized trial. JAMA 2013; 309:1368-1378.
103. Koser CU, Holden MT, Ellington MJ, et al. Rapid whole-genome sequencing for investigation of a neonatal MRSA outbreak. N Engl J Med 2012; 366: 2267-2275.