A review of the agreement between clinicians' personality disorder diagnoses and those from other methods and sources

Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 1-19

  Samuel, Douglas B ^a  

^a PURDUE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Clinician; Diagnosis; Personality disorder; Practice; Systematic; Therapist

Indexed keywords

EID: 84924753645     PISSN: 09695893     EISSN: 14682850     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/cpsp.12088     Document Type: Article

References (105)

1. Achenbach, T. M., Krukowski, R. A., Dumenci, L., & Ivanova, M. Y. (2005). Assessment of adult psychopathology: Meta-analyses and implications of cross-informant correlations. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 361-382. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.3.361
2. Allard, K., & Grann, M. (2000). Personality disorders and patient-informant concordance on DIP-Q self-report in a forensic psychiatric inpatient setting. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 54, 195-200. doi:10.1080/080394800750019105
3. Anderson, K. G., Sankis, L. M., & Widiger, T. A. (2001). Pathology versus statistical infrequency: Potential sources of gender bias in personality disorder criteria. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189, 661-668. doi:10.1097/00005053-200110000-00002
4. Andreas, S., Theisen, P., Mestel, R., Koch, U., & Schulz, H. (2009). Validity of routine clinical DSM-IV diagnoses (AXIS I/II) in inpatients with mental disorders. Psychiatry Research, 170, 252-255. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.09.009
5. Bender, D. S., Dolan, R. T., Skodol, A. E., Sanislow, C. A., Dyck, I. R., McGlashan, T. H., ... Gunderson, J. G. (2001). Treatment utilization by patients with personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 295-302. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.2.295
6. Bieling, P. J., MacQueen, G. M., Marriot, M. J., Robb, J. C., Begin, H., Joffe, R. T., & Young, L. T. (2003). Longitudinal outcome in patients with bipolar disorder assessed by life-charting is influenced by DSM-IV personality disorder symptoms. Bipolar Disorders, 5(1), 14-21.
7. Blagov, P. S., Bi, W., Shedler, J., & Westen, D. (2012). The Shedler-Westen Assessment Procedure (SWAP): Evaluating psychometric questions about its reliability, validity, and impact of its fixed score distribution. Assessment, 19, 370-382. doi:10.1177/1073191112436667
8. Blashfield, R. K., & Herkov, M. J. (1996). Investigating clinician adherence to diagnosis by criteria: A replication of Morey and Ochoa (1989). Journal of Personality Disorders, 10, 219-228.
9. Bradley, R., Hilsenroth, M., Guarnaccia, C., & Westen, D. (2007). Relationship between clinician assessment and self-assessment of personality disorders using the SWAP-200 and PAI. Psychological Assessment, 19, 225-229. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.19.2.225
10. Bronisch, T., Flett, S., Garciaborreguero, D., & Wolf, R. (1993). Comparison of a self-rating questionnaire with a diagnostic checklist for the assessment of DSM-III-R personality disorders. Psychopathology, 26, 102-107.
11. Bronisch, T., Garciaborreguero, D., Flett, S., Wolf, R., & Hiller, W. (1992). The Munich Diagnostic Checklist for the Assessment of DSM-III-R Personality Disorders for use in routine clinical care and research. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 242(2-3), 77-81. doi:10.1007/Bf02191550
12. Cantrell, J. D., & Dana, R. H. (1987). Use of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI) as a screening instrument at a community mental-health-center. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 366-375. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198707)43:4<366:Aid-Jclp2270430405>3.0.Co;2-P
13. Carlson, E. N., Vazire, S., & Oltmanns, T. F. (2011). You probably think this paper's about you: Narcissists' perceptions of their personality and reputation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 185-201. doi:10.1037/A0023781
14. Chick, D., Sheaffer, C. I., Goggin, W. C., & Sison, G. F. (1993). The relationship between MCMI personality scales and clinician-generated DSM-III-R personality disorder diagnoses. Journal of Personality Assessment, 61, 264-276. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6102_8
15. Clark, L. A. (2007). Assessment and diagnosis of personality disorder: Perennial issues and an emerging reconceptualization. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 227-257. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190200
16. Clark, L. A., Simms, L. J., Wu, K. D., & Casillas, A. (in press). Manual for the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP-2). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
17. Connelly, B. S., & Ones, D. S. (2010). An other perspective on personality: Meta-analytic integration of observers' accuracy and predictive validity. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 1092-1122. doi:10.1037/A0021212
18. Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Professional manual: Revised NEO Personality Inventory and NEO Five-Factor Inventory. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
19. Davidson, K. M., Obonsawin, M. C., Seils, M., & Patience, L. (2003). Patient and clinician agreement on personality using the SWAP-200. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17, 208-218. doi:10.1521/pedi.17.3.208.22148
20. Dreessen, L., & Arntz, A. (1999). Personality disorders have no excessively negative impact on therapist-rated therapy process in the cognitive and behavioural treatment of Axis I anxiety disorders. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 6, 384-394. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0879(199911)6:5 < 384:aid-cpp218 > 3.0.co;2-8
21. Eaton, W. W., Martins, S. S., Nestadt, G., Bienvenu, O. J., Clarke, D., & Alexandre, P. (2008). The burden of mental disorders. Epidemiologic Reviews, 30, 1-14. doi:10.1093/epirev/mxn011
22. Egan, S., Nathan, P., & Lumley, M. (2003). Diagnostic concordance of ICD-10 personality and comorbid disorders: A comparison of standard clinical assessment and structured interviews in a clinical setting. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 37, 484-491. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1614.2003.01226.x
23. Few, L. R., Miller, J. D., Morse, J. Q., Yaggi, K. E., Reynolds, S. K., & Pilkonis, P. A. (2010). Examining the reliability and validity of clinician ratings on the Five-Factor Model Score Sheet. Assessment, 17, 440-453. doi:10.1177/1073191110372210
24. Few, L. R., Miller, J. D., Rothbaum, A. O., Meller, S., Maples, J., Terry, D. P., ... MacKillop, J. (2013). Examination of the Section III DSM-5 Diagnostic System for Personality Disorders in an outpatient clinical sample. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 1057-1069. doi:10.1037/A0034878
25. Flanagan, E. H., & Blashfield, R. K. (2003). Gender bias in the diagnosis of personality disorders: The roles of base rates and social stereotypes. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17, 431-446. doi:10.1521/pedi.17.5.431.22974
26. Fountoulakis, K. N., Leucht, S., & Kaprinis, G. S. (2008). Personality disorders and violence. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 21(1), 84-92.
27. Fridell, M., & Hesse, M. (2006). Clinical diagnosis and SCID-II assessment of DSM-III-R personality disorders. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 22, 104-108. doi:10.1027/1015-5759.22.2.104
28. Gore, W. L., & Widiger, T. A. (2013). The DSM-5 dimensional trait model and five-factor models of general personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 816-821.
29. Gritti, E., Samuel, D. B., & Lang, M. (2014). Diagnostic agreement between clinicians and clients: The convergent and discriminant validity of the SWAP-200 and MCMI-III personality disorder scales. Manuscript under review.
30. Grove, W. M., Zald, D. H., Lebow, B. S., Snitz, B. E., & Nelson, C. (2000). Clinical versus mechanical prediction: A meta-analysis. Psychological Assessment, 12(1), 19-30. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.12.1.19
31. Gunderson, J. G., Stout, R. L., McGlashan, T. H., Shea, T., Morey, L. C., Grilo, C. M., ... Skodol, A. E. (2011). Ten-year course of borderline personality disorder psychopathology and function from the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 827-837. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.37
32. Harkness, A. R., Finn, J. A., McNulty, J. L., & Shields, S. M. (2012). The Personality Psychopathology-Five (PSY-5): Recent constructive replication and assessment literature review. Psychological Assessment, 24, 432-443. doi:10.1037/a0025830
33. Hesse, M. (2005). Social workers' ratings of comorbid personality disorders in substance abusers. Addictive Behaviors, 30, 1241-1246. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.12.002
34. Hesse, M., & Thylstrup, B. (2008). Inter-rater agreement of comorbid DSM-IV personality disorders in substance abusers. BMC Psychiatry, 8.
35. Hopwood, C. J., Morey, L. C., Edelen, M. O., Shea, M. T., Grilo, C. M., Sanislow, C. A., ... Skodol, A. E. (2008). A comparison of interview and self-report methods for the assessment of borderline personality disorder criteria. Psychological Assessment, 20(1), 81-85. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.20.1.81
36. Huprich, S. K., & Bornstein, R. F. (2007). An overview of issues related to categorical and dimensional models of personality disorders assessment. Journal of Personality Assessment, 89, 3-15.
37. Huprich, S. K., Bornstein, R. F., & Schmitt, T. A. (2011). Self-report methodology is insufficient for improving the assessment and classification of Axis II personality disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 25, 557-570. doi:10.1521/pedi.2011.25.5.557
38. Hyler, S. E., Rieder, R. O., Williams, J. B., & Spitzer, R. L. (1989). A comparison of clinical and self-report diagnoses of DSM-III personality disorders in 552 patients. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 30, 170-178. doi:10.1016/0010-440x(89)90070-9
39. Klein, D. N. (2003). Patients' versus informants' reports of personality disorders in predicting 7 1/2-year outcome in outpatients with depressive disorders. Psychological Assessment, 15, 216-222.
40. Klein, M. H., Benjamin, L. S., Rosenfeld, R., Treece, C., Husted, J., & Greist, J. H. (1993). The Wisconsin Personality Disorders Inventory: Development, reliability, and validity. Journal of Personality Disorders, 7, 285-303.
41. Klonsky, E. D., Oltmanns, T. F., & Turkheimer, E. (2002). Informant-reports of personality disorder: Relation to self-reports and future research directions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9, 300-311.
42. Kraemer, H. C., Kupfer, D. J., Clarke, D. E., Narrow, W. E., & Regier, D. A. (2012). DSM-5: How reliable is reliable enough? American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 13-15. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11010050
43. Krueger, R. F., Derringer, J., Markon, K. E., Watson, D., & Skodol, A. E. (2012). Initial construction of a maladaptive personality trait model and inventory for DSM-5. Psychological Medicine, 42, 1879-1890. doi:10.1017/S0033291711002674
44. Linehan, M. M., Tutek, D. A., Heard, H. L., & Armstrong, H. E. (1994). Interpersonal outcome of cognitive-behavioral treatment for chronically suicidal borderline patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1771-1776.
45. Löffler-Stastka, H., Ponocny-Seliger, E., Fischer-Kern, M., Rössler-Schülein, H., Leithner-Dziubas, K., & Schuster, P. (2007). Validation of the SWAP-200 for diagnosing psychostructural organization in personality disorders. Psychopathology, 40(1), 35-46. doi:10.1159/000096388
46. Marin-Avellan, L. E., McGauley, G., Campbell, C., & Fonagy, P. (2005). Using the SWAP-200 in a personality-disordered forensic population: Is it valid, reliable, and useful? Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 15, 28-45.
47. Markon, K. E., Quilty, L. C., Bagby, R. M., & Krueger, R. F. (2013). The development and psychometric properties of an informant-report form of the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5). Assessment, 20, 370-383.
48. McDermut, W., & Zimmerman, M. (2005). Assessment instruments and standardized evaluation. In J. Oldham, A. E. Skodol, & D. Bender (Eds.), The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of personality disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
49. Meehl, P. E. (1954). Clinical versus statistical prediction: A theoretical analysis and a review of the evidence. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
50. Meier, P., & Barrowclough, C. (2009). Mental health problems: Are they or are they not a risk factor for dropout from drug treatment? A systematic review of the evidence Drugs: Education Prevention and Policy, 16, 7-38. doi:10.1080/09687630701741030
51. Mellsop, G., Varghese, F., Joshua, S., & Hicks, A. (1982). The reliability of Axis II of DSM-III. American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 1360-1361.
52. Meyer, G. J., Finn, S. E., Eyde, L. D., Kay, G. G., Moreland, K. L., Dies, R. R., ... Reed, G. M. (2001). Psychological testing and psychological assessment: A review of evidence and issues. American Psychologist, 56, 128-165. doi:10.1037//0003-066x.56.2.128
53. Miller, J. D., Jones, S. E., & Lynam, D. R. (2011). Psychopathic traits from the perspective of self and informant reports: Is there evidence for a lack of insight? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 758-764. doi:10.1037/A0022477
54. Miller, J. D., Pilkonis, P. A., & Clifton, A. (2005). Self- and other-reports of traits from the five-factor model: Relations to personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 400-419. doi:10.1521/pedi.2005.19.4.400
55. Molinari, V., Kunik, M. E., Mulsant, B., & Rifai, A. H. (1998). The relationship between patient, informant, social worker, and consensus diagnoses of personality disorder in elderly depressed inpatients. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 6, 136-144.
56. Morey, L. C., Blashfield, R. K., Webb, W. W., & Jewell, J. (1988). MMPI scales for DSM-III personality disorders: A preliminary validation study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 47-50. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198801)44:1 < 47:AID-JCLP2270440110 > 3.0.CO;2-R
57. Morey, L. C., & Ochoa, E. S. (1989). An investigation of clinical adherence to diagnostic criteria: Clinical diagnosis of DSM-III personality disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 3, 180-192.
58. Newton-Howes, G., Tyrer, P., & Johnson, T. (2006). Personality disorder and the outcome of depression: Meta-analysis of published studies. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188, 13-20.
59. Noren, K., Lindgren, A., Haellstom, T., Thormaehlen, B., Vinnars, B., Wennberg, P., ... Barber, J. P. (2007). Psychological distress and functional impairment in patients with personality disorders. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 61, 260-270. doi:10.1080/08039480701414973
60. North, C. S., Pollio, D. E., Thompson, S. J., Ricci, D. A., Smith, E. M., & Spitznagel, E. L. (1997). A comparison of clinical and structured interview diagnoses in a homeless mental health clinic. Community Mental Health Journal, 33, 531-543. doi:10.1023/a:1025052720325
61. Perry, J. C. (1992). Problems and considerations in the valid assessment of personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 1645-1653.
62. Piedmont, R. L., & Ciarrocchi, J. W. (1999). The utility of the revised NEO Personality Inventory in an outpatient, drug rehabilitation context. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 13, 213-226.
63. Piersma, H. L. (1987). The MCMI as a measure of DSM-III Axis II diagnoses: An empirical comparison. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 478-483. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198709)43:5 < 478:aid-jclp2270430508 > 3.0.co;2-z
64. Pilkonis, P. A., Heape, C. L., Proietti, J. M., Clark, S. W., McDavid, J. D., & Pitts, T. E. (1995). The reliability and validity of two structured diagnostic interviews for personality disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1025-1033.
65. Pilkonis, P. A., Heape, C. L., Ruddy, J., & Serrao, P. (1991). Validity in the diagnosis of personality disorders: The use of the LEAD standard. Psychological Assessment, 3, 46-54. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.3.1.46
66. Pinel, P. (1962). A treatise on insanity. New York, NY: Published under the auspices of the Library of the New York Academy of Medicine by Hafner Pub. Co. (Original work published 1801)
67. Ray, J. V., Hall, J., Rivera-Hudson, N., Poythress, N. G., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Morano, M. (2013). The relation between self-reported psychopathic traits and distorted response styles: A meta-analytic review. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 4, 1-14. doi:10.1037/A0026482
68. Ready, R. E., Clark, L. A., Watson, D., & Westerhouse, K. (2000). Self- and peer-reported personality: Agreement, trait ratability, and the "self-based heuristic." Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 208-224. doi:10.1006/jrpe.1999.2280
69. Regier, D. A., Kaelber, C. T., Roper, M. T., & Rae, D. S. (1994). The ICD-10 clinical field trial for mental and behavioral disorders: Results in Canada and the United States. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1340-1350.
70. Rettew, D. C., Lynch, A. D., Achenbach, T. M., Dumenci, L., & Ivanova, M. Y. (2009). Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 18(3), 169-184. doi:10.1002/mpr.289
71. Rogers, R. (2003). Standardizing DSM-IV diagnoses: The clinical applications of structured interviews. Journal of Personality Assessment, 81, 220-225. doi:10.1207/S15327752jpa8103_04
72. Rossi, G., Van den Brande, I., Tobac, A., Sloore, H., & Hauben, C. (2003). Convergent validity of the MCMI-III personality disorder scales and the MMPI-2 scales. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17, 330-340. doi:10.1521/pedi.17.4.330.23970
73. Samuel, D. B., Anez, L. M., Paris, M., & Grilo, C. M. (2014). The convergence of personality disorder diagnoses across different methods among monolingual (Spanish-speaking only) Hispanic patients in substance abuse treatment. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 5, 172-177.
74. Samuel, D. B., Sanislow, C. A., Hopwood, C. J., Shea, M. T., Skodol, A. E., Morey, L. C., ... Grilo, C. M. (2013). Convergent and incremental predictive validity of clinician, self-report, and diagnostic interview assessment methods for personality disorders over five years. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81, 650-659.
75. Samuel, D. B., & Widiger, T. A. (2009). Comparative gender biases in models of personality disorder. Personality and Mental Health, 3(1), 12-25. doi:10.1002/pmh.61
76. Samuel, D. B., & Widiger, T. A. (2010). Comparing personality disorder models: Cross-method assessment of the FFM and DSM-IV-TR. Journal of Personality Disorders, 24, 721-745. doi:10.1521/pedi.2010.24.6.721
77. Shea, M. T., Glass, D. R., Pilkonis, P. A., Watkins, J. T., & Docherty, J. P. (1987). Frequency and implications of personality disorders in a sample of depressed outpatients. Journal of Personality Disorders, 1, 27-42. doi:10.1521/pedi.1987.1.1.27
78. Shedler, J., & Westen, D. (1998). Refining the measurement of Axis II: A Q-sort procedure for assessing personality pathology. Assessment, 5, 333-353. doi:10.1177/107319119800500403
79. Skodol, A. E., Rosnick, L., Kellman, D., Oldham, J. M., & Hyler, S. E. (1988). Validating structured DSM-III-R personality disorder assessments with longitudinal data. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 1297-1299.
80. Smith, S. W., Hilsenroth, M. J., & Bornstein, R. F. (2009). Convergent validity of the SWAP-200 dependency scales. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 197, 613-618. doi:10.1097/Nmd.0b013e3181b08d89
81. Soeteman, D. I., Verheul, R., & Busschbach, J. J. V. (2008). The burden of disease in personality disorders: Diagnosis-specific quality of life. Journal of Personality Disorders, 22, 259-268.
82. Soldz, S., Budman, S., Demby, A., & Merry, J. (1995). Personality traits as seen by patients, therapists and other group members: The Big Five in personality disorder groups. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 32, 678-687. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.32.4.678
83. Spitzer, R. L., Forman, J. B. W., & Nee, J. (1979). DSM-III field trials: 1. Initial interrater diagnostic reliability. American Journal of Psychiatry, 136, 815-817.
84. Tenney, N. H., Schotte, C. K. W., Denys, D. A. J. P., van Megen, H. J. G. M., & Westenberg, H. G. M. (2003). Assessment of DSM-IV personality disorders in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Comparison of clinical diagnosis, self-report questionnaire, and semi-structured interview. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17, 550-561. doi:10.1521/pedi.17.6.550.25352
85. Thomas, K. M., Yalch, M. M., Krueger, R. F., Wright, A. G. C., Markon, K., & Hopwood, C. J. (2013). The convergent structure of DSM-5 personality trait facets and five-factor model trait domains. Assessment, 20, 308-311.
86. Torrens, M., Serrano, D., Astals, M., Pérez-Domínquez, G., Sr., & Martín-Santos, R. (2004). Diagnosing comorbid psychiatric disorders in substance abusers: Validity of the Spanish versions of the Psychiatric Research Interview for Substance and Mental Disorders and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1231-1237. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.7.1231
87. Trull, T. J., & Durrett, C. A. (2005). Categorical and dimensional models of personality disorder. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 355-380. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144009
88. Trull, T. J., Jahng, S., Tomko, R. L., Wood, P. K., & Sher, K. J. (2010). Revised NESARC personality disorder diagnoses: Gender, prevalence, and comorbidity with substance dependence disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 24, 412-426.
89. Trull, T. J., & Widiger, T. A. (1997). SIFFM: Structured Interview for the Five-Factor Model of Personality, professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
90. Vanrijkom, H. M., & Verdonschot, E. H. (1995). Factors involved in validity measurements of diagnostic tests for approximal caries: A meta-analysis. Caries Research, 29, 364-370.
91. Vazire, S. (2010). Who knows what about a person? The Self-Other Knowledge Asymmetry (SOKA) model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 281-300. doi:10.1037/A0017908
92. Vine, R. G., & Steingart, A. B. (1994). Personality disorder in the elderly depressed. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry-Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie, 39, 392-398.
93. Westen, D. (1997). Divergences between clinical and research methods for assessing personality disorders: Implications for research and the evolution of Axis II. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 895-903.
94. Westen, D., & Muderrisoglu, S. (2003). Assessing personality disorders using a systematic clinical interview: Evaluation of an alternate to structured interviews. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17, 351-369. doi:10.1521/pedi.17.4.351.23967
95. Westen, D., & Shedler, J. (1999). Revising and assessing Axis II, part II: Toward an empirically based and clinically useful classification of personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 273-285.
96. Westen, D., Shedler, J., Bradley, B., & DeFife, J. A. (2012). An empirically derived taxonomy for personality diagnosis: Bridging science and practice in conceptualizing personality. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 273-284. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11020274
97. Westen, D., & Weinberger, J. (2004). When clinical description becomes statistical prediction. American Psychologist, 59, 595-613. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.7.595
98. Widiger, T. A., & Boyd, S. (2009). Assessing personality disorders. In J. Butcher (Ed.), Oxford handbook of personality assessment. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
99. Widiger, T. A., & Samuel, D. B. (2005a). Diagnostic categories or dimensions? A question for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-fifth edition. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 494-504. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.494
100. Widiger, T. A., & Samuel, D. B. (2005b). Evidence-based assessment of personality disorders. Psychological Assessment, 17, 278-287. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.17.3.278
101. Wilberg, T., Dammen, T., & Friis, S. (2000). Comparing Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire-4 + with longitudinal, expert, all data (LEAD) standard diagnoses in a sample with a high prevalence of Axis I and Axis II disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41, 295-302. doi:10.1053/comp.2000.0410295
102. Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Sickel, A. E., & Yong, L. (1996). The Diagnostic Interview for DSM-IV Personality Disorders (DIPD-IV). Belmont, MA: McLean Hospital.
103. Zimmerman, M. (1994). Diagnosing personality disorders: A review of issues and research methods. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 225-245. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950030061006
104. Zimmerman, M. (2003). What should the standard of care for psychiatric diagnostic evaluations be? Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 191, 281-286. doi:10.1097/00005053-200305000-00002
105. Zimmerman, M., & Mattia, J. I. (1999). Differences between clinical and research practices in diagnosing borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1570-1574.