Our Underachieving Colleges: A Candid Look at How Much Students Learn and Why They Should Be Learning More

Our Underachieving Colleges: A Candid Look at How Much Students Learn and Why They Should Be Learning More

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-429

  Bok, Derek ^a  

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233. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, pp. 65-66, 614.
234. Lamont Flowers, Steven J. Osterlind, Ernest T. Pascarella, and Christopher T. Pierson, "How Much Do Students Learn in College?: Cross-Sectional Estimates Using the College BASE," 72 The Journal of College Education (2001), pp. 566, 574.
235. Alexander W. Astin, What Matters in College, pp. 236-41, 302-10, 370-72.
236. Alexander W. Astin, "Involvement in Learning: Lessons We Have Learned," 37 Journal of College Student Development (1996), p. 123.
237. Pascarella and Terenzini, How College Affects Students, p. 619.
238. Rita Dunn, Shirley Griggs, Jeffery Olson, Mark Beasley, and Bernard Gorman, "A Meta-Analytic Validation of the Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model," 88 Journal of Educational Research (1995), p. 353.
239. David Brooks, "'Moral Suicide,' à la Wolfe," New York Times (November 16, 2004), p. A27.
240. Daniel Callahan and Sissela Bok (eds.), Ethics Teaching in Higher Education (1980)
241. Douglas Sloan, "The Teaching of Ethics in the American Undergraduate Curriculum, 1976-1996," p. 1.
242. Who's Who among American High School Students: 29th Annual Survey of High Achievers, Cheating and Succeeding: Record Numbers of Top High School Students Take Ethical Shortcuts (1998), p. 1.
243. Josephson Institute of Ethics, Report Card 2002: The Ethics of American Youth (2002).
244. Josephson Institute of Ethics, Report Card 2004: The Ethics of American Youth (2004), available on line at http://josephsoninstitute.org/Survey2004/.
245. Josephson Institute of Ethics, Report Card 2002, p. 6.
246. Donald L. McCabe and Linda K. Trevino, "Honor Codes and Other Contextual Influences," 64 The Journal of Higher Education (1993), p. 522;
247. Margaret P. Jendrek, "Faculty Reactions to Academic Dishonesty," 30 Journal of College Student Development (1989), p. 401.
248. Donald L. McCabe, Linda K. Trevino, and Kenneth D. Butterfield, "Cheating in Academic Institutions: A Decade of Research," 11 Ethics and Behavior (2001), pp. 219, 223;
249. Gary Pavela, "Applying the Power of Association on Campus: A Model Code of Academic Integrity," 9 Synthesis: Law and Policy in Higher Education (1997), p. 637.
250. When Hope and Fear Collide: A Portrait of Today's College Student (1998), p. 126.
251. David Callahan, The Cheating Culture: Why More Americans Are Doing Wrong to Get Ahead (2004), especially pp. 20-24.
252. Tammy Joyner, "Corporate Crime Not Limited to Bigwigs," Atlanta Journal-Constitution (August 6, 2002), p. A1.
253. Alan Wolfe, Moral Freedom: The Impossible Idea That Defines the Way We Live Now (2001), p. 195.
254. Harvard University, General Education in a Free Society (1945), pp. 72-73.
255. Howard R. Bowen, Investment in Learning: The Individual and Social Value of American Higher Education (1977), p. 220.
256. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (1991), p. 366.
257. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, Vol. 2: A Third Decade of Research (2005), p. 347.
258. Andre Schlaefli, James R. Rest, and Stephen J. Thoma, "Does Moral Education Improve Moral Judgment?: A Meta-Analysis of Intervention Studies Using the Defining Issues Test," 55 Review of Educational Research (1985), p. 319;
259. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students,Vol. 2, p. 348.
260. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 359.
261. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, p. 357, reporting that discussions of moral dilemmas are particularly effective in encouraging students to approach ethical questions through principled reasoning.
262. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, pp. 354-55.
263. G. Blakemore Evans, The Riverside Shakespeare (1974), p. 256.
264. Alan L. Otten, "Politics and People," Wall Street Journal (April 11, 1974), p. 12.
265. Wendy Fischman, Becca Solomon, Deborah Greenspan, and Howard Gardner, Making Good: How Young People Cope with Moral Dilemmas at Work (2004), p. 161.
266. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, p. 363;
267. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 582.
268. James R. Rest and Darcia Narváez, "Summary: What's Possible," in James R. Rest and Darcia Narváez, Moral Development and the Professions: Psychology and Applied Ethics (1994), p. 213.
269. Harvard University Gazette (October 17, 1986), pp. 1, 8.
270. Martin Hoffman, Empathy and Moral Development:Implications for Caring and Justice (2000);
271. Alfie Kohn, The Brighter Side of Human Nature: Altruism and Empathy in Everyday Life (1990).
272. Donald L. McCabe, Linda K. Trevino, and Kenneth D. Butterfield, "Academic Integrity in Honor Code and Non-Honor Code Environments: A Qualitative Investigation," 70 The Journal of Higher Education (1999), p. 211.
273. Donald L. McCabe, "Faculty Responses to Academic Dishonesty:The Influence of Student Honor Codes," 34 Research in Higher Education (1993), p. 647.
274. Margaret P. Jendrek, "Faculty Reactions to Academic Dishonesty," 30 Journal of College Student Development (1989), p. 401.
275. Gary Pavela, "Donald McCabe on 'Faculty Attitudes toward Academic Integrity,'" 9 Synthesis: Law and Policy in Higher Education (1997), pp. 637, 642.
276. Sissela Bok, Mayhem: Violence as Public Entertainment (1998), p. 70.
277. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 369.
278. Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles Jr., Where's the Learning in Service Learning? (1999), p. 37.
279. Judith A. Boss, "The Effect of Community Service Work on the Moral Development of College Ethics Students," 23 Journal of Moral Education (1994), p. 183.
280. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, pp. 358-59.
281. Alexander W. Astin, "Involvement in Learning Revisited:Lessons We Have Learned," 37 Journal of College Student Development (1996), pp. 123, 129.
282. Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles Jr., Where's the Learning in Service Learning?, p. 36.
283. Linda J. Sax and Alexander W. Astin, "The Development of 'Civic Virtue' among College Students," in John Gardner and Gretchen Van der Veer (eds.), The Senior Year Experience: A Beginning, Not an End (1997), p. 191.
284. Linda J. Sax, Alexander W. Astin, William Korn, and Shannon Gilmartin, The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1989-1999 HERI Faculty Survey (1999), p. 36.
285. John Dewey, School and Society (2d Ed., 1933).
286. Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles Jr., Where's the Learning in Service Learning? (1999), p. 154.
287. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000), p. 45.
288. Peter Levine and Mark H. Lopez, "Youth Turnout Has Declined by Any Measure," The Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement (University of Maryland, September 2002), p. 9.
289. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 252.
290. David T. Z. Mindich, Tuned Out: Why Americans under 40 Don't Follow the News (2005), p. 28.
291. Martin P. Wattenberg, Where Have All the Voters Gone? (2002), p. 93.
292. William A. Galston, "Political Knowledge, Political Engagement, and Civic Education," 4 Annual Review of Political Science (2001), p. 217.
293. American Political Science Association, Task Force on Civic Education in the Next Century, "Expanded Articulation Statement: A Call for Reactions and Contributions," 31 PS: Political Science and Politics (1998), pp. 636-37.
294. Hindy L. Schecter, "Civic Education: Three Early American Political Science Association Committees and Their Relevance to Our Times," 31 PS: Political Science and Politics (1998), p. 631
295. Stephen T. Leonard, "'Pure Futility and Waste': Academic Political Science and Civic Education," 32 PS: Political Science and Politics (1999), p. 749.
296. Mike Bergman, "U.S. Voter Turnout Up in 2004, Census Bureau Reports," U.S. Census Bureau News, press release (May 26, 2005).
297. David C. King, "Youth Came Through with Big Turnout," Boston Globe (November 4, 2004), p. A15.
298. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 31.
299. How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (1991), p. 278.
300. William A. Galston, "Political Knowledge, Political Engagement, and Civic Education," p. 232
301. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2: A Third Decade of Research (2005), p. 329.
302. Sam L. Popkin and Michael A. Dimock, Political Knowledge and Citizen Competence (1999), p. 142.
303. Michael C. Johanek and John Puckett, "The State of Civic Education: Preparing Citizens in an Age of Accountability," in Susan Fuhrman and Marvin Lazerson (eds.), The Public Schools (2005), p. 130.
304. Derek Bok, The Trouble with Government (2001), pp. 405-6.
305. Linda J. Sax, Alexander W. Astin, William S. Korn, and Kathryn Mahoney, The American Freshman: National Norms for Fall 2000 (2000).
306. Linda J. Sax, Alexander W. Astin, William S. Korn, and Kathryn Mahoney, The American Freshman: National Norms for Fall 2003 (2003);
307. "Survey: Fewer Students Seek Diverse Friends," 52 Chronicle of Higher Education (February 4, 2005), pp. A-1, A-34.
308. Anne Colby, Thomas Ehrlich, Elizabeth Beaumont, and Jason Stephens, Educating Citizens: Preparing America's Undergraduates for Lives of Moral and Civic Responsibility (2003), p. 45.
309. Carol G. Schneider, "Educational Missions and Civic Responsibility," in Thomas Ehrlich (ed.), Civic Responsibility and Higher Education (2000), pp. 98, 120.
310. Linda J. Sax, Alexander W. Astin, William S. Korn, and Shannon K. Gilmartin, The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1989-1999 HERI Faculty Survey (1999), p. 36.
311. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, pp. 277-78.
312. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 586.
313. Linda J. Sax and Alexander W. Astin, "Developing Civic Virtue among College Students," in John N. Gardner and Gretchen Van der Veer (eds.), The Senior Year Experience: Facilitating Integration, Reflection, Closure and Transition (1998), p. 133.
314. Linda J. Sax, "Citizenship Development and the American College Student," in Thomas Ehrlich (ed.), Civic Responsibility and Higher Education (2003), p. 16:
315. William E. Knox, Paul Lindsay, and Mary N. Kolb, Does College Make a Difference? Long-Term Changes in Activities and Attitudes (1993), pp. 91-92.
316. Dan Drew and David Weaver, "Voter Learning in the 1988 Presidential Election: Did the Debate and the Media Matter?" 68 Journalism Quarterly (1991), p. 27.
317. Carol G. Schneider, "Liberal Education and the Civic Engagement Gap," in Adrianna Kezar, Tony C. Chambers, and John C. Burkhardt (eds.), Higher Education for the Public Good: Emerging Voices from a National Movement (2005), pp. 127, 139, 140.
318. U.S. Department of Education, The New College Course Map and Transcript Files: Changes in Course-Taking and Achievement, 1972-1993 (2d Ed., 1999), pp. 187-89.
319. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 35.
320. Norman Nie and Sunshine Hillygus, "Education and Democratic Citizenship," in Diane Ravitch and Joseph Viteritti (eds.), Making Good Citizens: Education and Civil Society (2001), p. 30.
321. David E. Campbell, Untapped Potential: Young People and Political Mobilization, Program in American Democracy, University of Notre Dame (2004), Campbell.91@nd.edu.
322. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 46.
323. William E. Knox, Paul Lindsay, and Mary N. Kolb, Does College Make a Difference?, p. 19.
324. William A. Galston, "Political Knowledge, Political Engagement, and Civic Education," p. 218.
325. Elizabeth Beaumont, Anne Colby, Thomas Ehrlich, and Judith Torney-Purta, "Promoting Political Competence and Engagement in College Students: An Empirical Study," Journal of Political Science Education (in press).
326. Linda J. Sax and Alexander W. Astin, "The Development of 'Civic Virtue' among College Students," in John Gardner and Gretchen Van der Veer (eds.), The Senior Year Experience, p. 19.
327. Miranda Yates and James Youniss, "Community Service and Political-Moral Identity in Adolescents," 6 Journal of Research on Adolescents (1996), p. 271;
328. Monica Kirkpatrick, Timothy Beebe, Jeylan T. Mortimer, and Mark Snyder, "Volunteerism in Adolescence: A Process Perspective," 8 Journal of Research on Adolescence (1998), p. 309.
329. Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles Jr., Where's the Learning in Service Learning? (1999).
330. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 359.
331. Arthur Levine and Jeannette S. Cureton, When Hope and Fear Collide: A Portrait of Today's College Student (1998), p. 54.
332. Sidney Verba, Kay L. Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equity: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (1995), pp. 424-25.
333. Elizabeth F. Farrell and Eric Hoover, "Many Colleges Fall Short on Registering Student Voters," 51 Chronicle of Higher Education (September 17, 2004), p. A-1.
334. Matthew Hartley and Elizabeth L. Hollander, "The Elusive Ideal: Civic Learning and Higher Education," in Susan Fuhrman and Marvin Lazerson (eds.), The Public Schools (2005), pp. 252, 272.
335. Laurence Veysey, The Emergence of the American University (1965; First Phoenix Edition, 1970), p. 271.
336. Ernest T. Pascarella, Betsy Palmer, Melinda Moye, and Christopher T. Pierson, "Do Diversity Experiences Influence the Development of Critical Thinking?," 42 Journal of College Student Development (2001), p. 257.
337. Patricia Gurin, Jeffrey S. Lehman, and Earl Lewis, Defending Diversity: Defending Affirmative Action at the University of Michigan (2004), pp. 102, 130.
338. Samuel Walker, Hate Speech (1994), p. 127;
339. Jack B. Harrison, "Hate Speech: Power in the Marketplace," 25 The Journal of College and University Law (1994), p. 478;
340. Henry Louis Gates Jr., "Let Them Talk," The New Republic (September 20 and 27, 1993), p. 37.
341. Debra Humphreys, "National Survey Finds Diversity Requirements Common around the Country," http://www.diversityweb .org/Digest/FOO/survey.html.
342. Jeffrey F. Milem and Kenji Hakuta, "The Benefits of Racial and Ethnic Diversity in Higher Education," in Deborah J. Wilds (ed.), Minorities in Higher Education: Seventeenth Annual Status Report, American Council on Education (2001), p. 39.
343. Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible (1997), pp. 387-88.
344. Arthur Levine and Jeannette S. Cureton, When Hope and Fear Collide: A Portrait of Today's College Student (1998), p. 91. 10.
345. Beverly D. Tatum, "Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?" and Other Conversations about Race (1997), p. 78.
346. Sharon B. Gmelch, Gender on Campus: Issues for College Women (1998), p. 96.
347. Donna Henderson-King and Audrey Kaleta, "Learning about Social Diversity: The Undergraduate Experience and Intergroup Tolerance," 71 The Journal of Higher Education (2000), p. 142.
348. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, Vol. 2: A Third Decade of Research (2005), p. 581;
349. Ernest T. Pascarella, Marcia Edison, Amaury Nora, Linda S. Hagedorn, and Patrick T. Terenzini, "Influences on Students' Openness to Diversity and Challenge in the First Year of College," 67 The Journal of Higher Education (1996), pp. 174, 175.
350. Alexander W. Astin, What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited (1993), p. 146;
351. Alexander W. Astin, Jennifer R. Kemp, and Jennifer A. Lindholm, "A Decade of Changes in Undergraduate Education: A National Study of System 'Transformation,'" 25 The Review of Higher Education (2002), pp. 141, 154.
352. William G. Bowen and Derek Bok, The Shape of the River:Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (1998).
353. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, "the weight of evidence is reasonably clear and consistent in suggesting that across racial-ethnic groups, having friends of another race and being a member of an interracial friendship group has significant and positive effects on racial-ethnic attitudes and values"; How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 311.
354. Sylvia Hurtado, "The Campus Racial Climate: Contexts of Conflict," 63 The Journal of Higher Education (1992), pp. 539, 552.
355. Arthur Levine and Jeannette Cureton, When Hope and Fear Collide, p. 71.
356. Anthony L. Antonio, "The Role of Interracial Interaction in the Development of Leadership Skills and Cultural Knowledge and Understanding," 42 Research in Higher Education (2001), pp. 593, 604.
357. Anthony L. Antonio, "Diversity and the Influence of Friendship Groups in College," 25 The Review of Higher Education (2001), pp. 63, 76, 78.
358. Arthur Levine and Jeannette S. Cureton, When Hope and Fear Collide, p. 72.
359. Howard J. Ehrlich, Campus Ethnoviolence . . . and the Policy Options, Institute Report No. 4, National Institute against Prejudice and Violence (1990), p. iii.
360. Mel Elfin with Sarah Burke, "Race on Campus," U.S. News and World Report (April 19, 1993), pp. 53-56.
361. Arthur Levine and Jeannette S. Cureton, When Hope and Fear Collide, pp. 71-91, 81.
362. Greg Tanaka, The Intercultural Campus: Transcending Culture and Power in American Higher Education (2003), pp. 91, 74.
363. Ernest T. Pascarella, Marcia Edison, Amaury Nora, Linda S. Hagedorn, and Patrick T. Terenzini, "Influences on Students' Openness to Diversity and Challenge in the First Year of College," pp. 174, 189;
364. Walter G. Stephan and W. Paul Vogt (eds.), Education Programs for Improving Intergroup Relations: Theory, Research, and Practice (2004);
365. Leonard Springer, Betsy Palmer, Patrick T. Terenzini, Ernest T. Pascarella, and Amaury Nora, "Attitudes toward Campus Diversity: Participation in a Racial or Cultural Awareness Workshop," 20 The Review of Higher Education (1996), p. 53;
366. A. Mitchell Chang, "The Impact of an Undergraduate Diversity Course Requirement on Students' Racial Views and Attitudes," 51 The Journal of General Education (2002), p. 21.
367. Adam Galinsky and Gordon B. Moskowitz, "Perspective-Taking: Decreasing Stereotype Expression, Stereotype Accessibility, and In-Group Favoritism," 78 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (2000), p. 708.
368. Greg Tanaka, The Intercultural Campus, pp. 7, 152;
369. Tommy Lee Woon, "Beyond a Leap of Faith: Addressing Second-Generation Diversity Challenges at Stanford University" (unpublished paper, February 6, 1997).
370. Charles Alan Kors, "Bad Faith: The Politicization of the University in Loco Parentis," in Howard Dickman (ed.), The Imperiled Academy (1993), p. 153.
371. Marcia Baxter Magola, "Facilitating Meaningful Dialogues about Race," 2 About Campus (November 1997), p. 14.
372. Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (1954).
373. Marilynn B. Brewer and Rupert J. Brown, "Intergroup Relations," in Daniel T. Gilbert, Susan T. Fiske, and Gardner Lindzey (eds.), The Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2, pp. 554, 576-83.
374. Elizabeth J. Whitt, Marcia Edison, Ernest T. Pascarella, Patrick T. Terenzini, and Amaury Nora, "Influences on Students' Openness to Diversity and Challenge in the Second and Third Years of College," 72 The Journal of Higher Education (2001), pp. 172, 195.
375. Walter G. Stephan and W. Paul Vogt (eds.), Education Programs for Improving Intergroup Relations: Theory, Research, and Practice (2004).
376. Sharon B. Gmelch, Gender on Campus: Issues for College Women (1998), p. 103.
377. Beverly D. Tatum, "Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?" p. 78.
378. Richard J. Light, Making the Most of College: Students Speak Their Minds (2001), pp. 180-81.
379. Theodore Cross, "The Good News That the Thernstroms Neglected to Tell," The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 42 (Winter 2003/2004), p. 3.
380. Gary Orfield, The Growth of Segregation in American Schools: Changing Patterns of Separation and Poverty Since 1968 (1993).
381. Barbara N. Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America (1985), p. 95;
382. Helen L. Horowitz, Campus Life: Undergraduate Cultures from the End of the Eighteenth Century to the Present (1987).
383. Barbara N. Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women, p. 127.
384. A Turning Point in Higher Education: The Inaugural Address of Charles William Eliot as President of Harvard College, October 19, 1869 (1969), p. 18.
385. Leslie Miller-Bernal, Separate by Degree:Women Students' Experiences in Single-Sex and Coeducational Colleges (2000), p. 209.
386. Mabel Newcomer, A Century of Higher Education for American Women (1959), p. 49.
387. Barbara N. Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women, p. 119.
388. Mabel Newcomer, A Century of Higher Education for American Women, p. 203.
389. Suzanne Imes, A Look at Coeducational Living in Institutions of Higher Education (1966);
390. Judith Corbett and Robert Sommer, "Anatomy of a Coed Residence Hall," 13 Journal of College Student Personnel (May 1972), p. 215;
391. Elizabeth A. Reid, "Effects of Coresidential Living on the Attitudes, Self-Image, and Role Expectations of Women," 131 American Journal of Psychiatry (1974), p. 551.
392. David A. Hoekema, Campus Rules and Moral Community:In Place of in Loco Parentis (1994), p. 15.
393. Norval Glenn and Elizabeth Marquardt, Hooking Up, Hanging Out, and Hoping for Mr. Right, Institute for American Values Report to the Independent Women's Forum (2001), p. 14
394. Dorothy C. Holland and Margaret A. Eisenhart, Educated in Romance: Women, Achievement, and College Culture (1990), pp. 79, 111, 149.
395. Norval Glenn and Elizabeth Marquardt, Hooking Up, Hanging Out, and Hoping for Mr. Right, pp. 26, 13.
396. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (1991), p. 326. See also studies cited on pages 293-95.
397. Norval Glenn and Elizabeth Marquardt, Hooking Up, Hanging Out, and Hoping for Mr. Right, pp. 61, 26.
398. Martin D. Schwartz and Walter S. Dekesredy, Sexual Assault on Campus: The Role of Male Peer Support (1997), pp. 11-13;
399. Mary P. Koss, Christine A. Gidycz, and Nadine Wisniewski, "The Scope of Rape: Incidence and Prevalence of Sexual Aggression and Victimization in a National Sample of Higher Education Students," 55 Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (1987), p. 162.
400. Neil Gilbert, "The Phantom Epidemic of Sexual Assault," Public Interest, No. 103 (Spring 1991), p. 54.
401. Jennifer Scanlon, "Campus Tolerates Violence," 4 Women in Higher Education (April 1995), p. 19.
402. Luoluo Hong, "Toward a Transformed Approach to Prevention:Breaking the Link between Masculinity and Violence," 48 Journal of American College Health (2000), p. 269.
403. Alexander W. Astin, What Matters in College, p. 142.
404. Alan J. Berkowitz, Man and Rape: Theory, Research and Prevention Programs in Higher Education (1994).
405. Richard D. Lambert, "New Directions in International Education," 449 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (May 1980), p. 14.
406. Robert B. Woyach, Understanding the Global Arena: A Report on the Ohio State Awareness Survey (1989).
407. Thomas S. Barrows, Stephen S. Klein, and John L. D. Clark, College Students' Knowledge and Beliefs:A Survey of Global Understanding (1981).
408. "Americans Get Low Grades in Gallup Geography Test," News Service of the National Geographic Society (July 27, 1988).
409. Martha C. Nussbaum, Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education (1997), pp. 50-51.
410. "The Impossibility of Internationalizing Students by Adding Materials to Courses," in Josef A. Mestenhausen and Brenda J. Ellingboe (eds.), Reforming the Higher Education Curriculum: Internationalizing the Campus (1998), pp. 53, 65.
411. Richard D. Lambert, International Studies and the Undergraduate (1989), p. 151.
412. William D. Hunter, "There is currently no agreed upon definition of what it means to be globally competent or how to obtain such world-wide savvy." "Got Global Competency?" 13 International Educator (Spring 2004), pp. 6, 8.
413. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward, Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses (2003), p. 24.
414. Richard D. Lambert, International Studies and the Undergraduate, pp. 122-23, 114.
415. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward, Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, p. 7.
416. U.S. Department of Education, The New College Course Map and Transcript Files: Changes in Course-Taking and Achievement, 1972-1993 (2d Ed., 1999), pp. 187, 189.
417. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward, Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, p. 104.
418. Richard D. Lambert, International Studies and the Undergraduate, pp. 130, 133.
419. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward, Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, pp. 13, 21, 103.
420. Alice C. O'Maggio, Teaching Language in Context (1986).
421. Joel C. Walz (ed.), Development and Supervision of Teaching Assistants in Foreign Languages (1992).
422. Richard D. Lambert, "Languages and International Studies," in Wilga Rivers (ed.), Teaching Languages in College: Curriculum and Content (1992), p. 285.
423. Wilga Rivers (ed.), Teaching Languages in College, p. 381.
424. Patsy Lightbowm, "Can Language Acquisition Be Altered by Instruction?," in Kenneth Hyltenstam and Manfred Pienemann (eds.), Modeling and Assessing Second Language Acquisition (1985), pp. 101, 106.
425. Michael H. Long, "Does Second Language Instruction Make a Difference?," 17 TESOL Quarterly (1983), p. 359.
426. Alexander W. Astin, What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited (1993), p. 223.
427. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward, Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, p. 25.
428. The figure of 160,000 is from Institute of International Education, Open Doors 2003: American Students Studying Abroad, http://opendoors.iienetwork.org/?p=36524 (December 19, 2003).
429. Jerry S. Carlson, Barbara B. Burn, John Useem, and David Yachimowicz, Study Abroad: The Experience of American Undergraduates (1990);
430. Norman L. Kauffmann, Judith M. Martin, and Henry D. Weaver, Students Abroad, Strangers at Home: Education for a Global Society (1992).
431. Norman L. Kauffmann, Judith M. Martin, and Henry D. Weaver, Students Abroad, Strangers at Home:Education for a Global Society (1992);
432. K. E. Gingerich, "The Impact of Study Abroad and Didactic Cross-Cultural Coursework Experiences on the Development of White Racial Consciousness and Cultural Sensitivity," unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas (1998);
433. D. H. Wallace, "Academic Study Abroad:The Long-Term Impact on Alumni Careers, Volunteer Activities, World and Personal Perspectives," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Claremont Graduate University (1999).
434. Jerry S. Carlson, Barbara B. Burn, John Useem, and David Yachimowicz, Study Abroad: The Experience of American Undergraduates (1990), p. 114.
435. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward, Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, p. 77.
436. Richard D. Lambert, International Studies and the Undergraduate, pp. 31, 27.
437. Crauford D. Goodwin and Michael Nacht, Abroad and Beyond:Patterns in American Overseas Education (1989).
438. Katherine H. Hanson and Joel W. Meyerson, International Challenges to American Colleges and Universities: Looking Ahead (1995), p. 31;
439. Patrick O'Meara, Howard D. Mehlinger, and Roxana M. Newman, Changing Perspectives on International Education (2001), p. 199.
440. Crauford D. Goodwin and Michael Nacht, Missing the Boat: The Failure to Internationalize American Higher Education (1991). On p. 112
441. Chun-mei Zhou, George D. Kuh, and Robert M. Corini, "A Comparison of International Student and American Student Engagement in Effective Educational Practices," 76 The Journal of Higher Education (2005), p. 259.
442. Thomas S. Barrows, Stephen F. Klein, and John L. D. Clark, College Student Beliefs (1981), pp. 36, 39.
443. Alexander W. Astin, What Matters in College, p. 223.
444. Martha C. Nussbaum, Cultivating Humanity, especially pp. 113-47.
445. Yelena Yershova, Joan DeJaeghere, and Josef Mestenhauser, "Thinking Not as Usual: Adding the Intercultural Perspective," 4 Journal of Studies in International Education (2000), p. 59.
446. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward, Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, pp. 107, 109.
447. Mallory Young, "It's Not Just French 101: It's an Introduction to 'Tout le Monde,'" 47 The Chronicle Review, Chronicle of Higher Education (May 11, 2001), p. B-12.
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536. Michael Useem, Liberal Education and the Corporation;
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545. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (1991).
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