Identity in democracy

Identity in Democracy

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-246

  Gutmann, Amy ^a  

^a NONE

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References (178)

1. For a review of the relevant experiments, see Jonathan D. Brown Natalie D. Novick, Kelley A. Lord, and Jane M. Richards, "When Gulliver Travels: Social Context, Psychological Closeness, and Self-Appraisals," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62, no. 5 (1992): 717-27.
2. For an overview of the psychological literature, see Margaret Wetherell, ed., Identities, Groups, and Social Issues (London: Sage, 1996);
3. Michael A. Hogg and Scott Tindale, eds., Group Processes (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001).
4. See Claude M. Steele and J. Aronson, "Stereotype Threat and the Test Performance of Academically Successful African Americans," in Jencks, C., and M. Phillips, eds. Black-White Test Score Gap (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1998);
5. J. Aronson, et al., "When White Men Can't Do Math: Necessary and Sufficient Factors in Stereotype Threat," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 35: (1999) 29-46;
6. S. J. Spencer, C. M. Steele, and D. M. Quinn, "Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 35 (1999): 4-28.
7. For an overview of the experimental evidence on African American college students, see Claude Steele, "Thin Ice: 'Stereotype Threat' and Black College Students," The Atlantic Monthly 284 (August 1999), no. 2: 44-47, 50-54.
8. See Yael Tamir, Liberal Nationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985).
9. Bruce E. Keith The Myth of the Independent Voter (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 38ff.
10. Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1960), pp. 143-44.
11. Larry Bartels, "Partisanship and Voting Behavior, 1952-1996," American Journal of Political Science 44, no. 1 ( January 2000): 35-50.
12. See, e.g., Philip E. Converse and Roy Pierce, Political Representation in France (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), especially 120-67.
13. see Pnina Lahav, "The Women-of-the-Wall Decision." Israel Studies Bulletin 16, no. 1 (Fall 2000): 19-22.
14. Michael A. Hogg and Scott Tindale, eds., Group Processes (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001).
15. For an insightful new account, see K. Anthony Appiah, "The State and the Shaping of Identity," unpublished Tanner Lectures, 2001.
16. For a similar understanding, see James Fearon, "What Is Identity (As We Now Use the Word)?," unpublished manuscript, 1999.
17. see Allan J. Cigler and Burdett A. Loomis, eds. Interest Group Politics, 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1995), 9.
18. Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971).
19. Rogers Brubaker and Frederick Cooper, "Beyond 'Identity,' " Theory and Society 29(1) (2000): 8.
20. Terrence M. Moe, The Organization of Interests (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1980).
21. For an extensive critique along these lines, see Brian M. Barry, Culture and Equality: An Egalitarian Critique of Multiculturalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).
22. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 65-73.
23. Todd Gitlin, The Twilight of Common Dreams: Why America Is Wracked by Culture Wars (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), 237. See also Barry, Culture and Equality, 326.
24. Brian Barry, Culture and Equality, 326.
25. William G. Bowen and Derek Bok, The Shape of the River (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998).
26. See William Julius Wilson, The Bridge over the Racial Divide (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999);
27. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disad vantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
28. For a general discussion of Barry's critique of multiculturalism, see Ayelet Shachar, "Two Critiques of Multiculturalim," Cardozo Law Review 23:1 (November 2001): 253-297, especially 275-287.
29. See, e.g., Stuart White, "Trade Unionism in a Liberal State," in Freedom of Association, edited by Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 330-356.
30. For a defense of deliberation and other principles of democratic justice, see Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson, Democracy and Disagreement (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996).
31. Ronald Dworkin, Sovereign Virtue (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000);
32. Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson, Democracy and Disagreement; Jurgen Habermas, The Inclusion of the Other (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998);
33. Russell Hardin, Liberalism, Constitutionalism and Democracy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000);
34. George Kateb, The Inner Ocean: Individualism and Democratic Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992);
35. David Miller, Principles of Social Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999);
36. Carlos Santiago Nino, The Constitution of Deliberative Democracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996);
37. Philip Pettit, Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997);
38. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice; and Ian Shapiro, Democratic Justice (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999).
39. See also Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community, and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 162-78, who identifies culture with a "context of choice" (164, 166).
40. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, edited by J. P. Mayer (New York: Doubleday Anchor ed., 1969), 513.
41. George Kateb, "The Value of Association," in Freedom of Association, edited by Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 37-38.
42. See K. Anthony Appiah, "Race, Culture, Identity," in K. Anthony Appiah and Amy Gutmann, Color Conscious: The Political Morality of Race (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 97-104.
43. See, e.g., Iris Marion Young's influential Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), 23-24, 152-55, and passim.
44. Joseph Raz and Avishai Margalit, "National Self-Determination," in Ethics in the Public Domain: Essays in the Morality of Law and Politics, edited by Joseph Raz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 119.
45. Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community, and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 175.
46. Margalit and Raz, "National Self-Determination," 114.
47. See Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 18, 76
48. Margalit and Raz, "National Self-Determination," 114.
49. Margalit and Raz, "National Self-Determination," 118.
50. Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community, and Culture, 164.
51. Margalit and Raz, "National Self-Determination," 118.
52. Raz, Ethics in the Public Domain, 162.
53. For a philosophical basis for the toleration view, see Bruce Ackerman, Social Justice in the Liberal State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980), 139-141.
54. See Axel Honneth, The Struggle for Recognition: The Moral Grammar of Social Conflicts (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996);
55. Axel Honneth, "Integrity and Disrespect: Principles of a Conception of Morality Based on a Theory of Recognition," in The Fragmented World of the Social: Essays in Social and Political Philosophy, edited by Charles W. Wright (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995), 255-56.
56. Jacob T. Levy, The Multiculturalism of Fear (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 129-30.
57. For a discussion of the Martinez case from a legal and humanistic perspective, see Ayelet Shachar, Multicultural Jurisdictions: Cultural Differences and Women's Rights (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 18-20.
58. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, 163-70.
59. Taylor, Multiculturalism, 54-61
60. Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community, and Culture, 135-61; 253-57.
61. For a defense of cosmopolitanism based on Rushdie's example, see Jeremy Waldron, "Multiculturalism and Melange," in Public Education in a Multicultural Society: Policy, Theory, Critique, edited by Robert K. Fullinwider (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 90-118.
62. Amartya Sen, "Other People." The New Republic, December 18, 2000, 28.
63. Amy Gutmann, "Challenges of Multiculturalism in Education," in Public Education in a Multicultural Society: Policy, Theory, Critique, edited by Robert Fullinwider (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 156-79.
64. See Bryna Jocheved Levy, "Sense and Sensibilities: Women and Talmud Torah," Jewish Action magazine, http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5759winter/sense.htm.
65. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, 167.
66. For a useful and more comprehensive typology of group rights, see Jacob Levy, "Classifying Cultural Rights," in NOMOS XXXIX: Ethincity and Group Rights, edited by Will Kymlicka and Ian Shapiro (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 22-66.
67. Lukes, "Toleration and Recognition," Ratio Juris 10, no. 2 (1997): 217-18.
68. Bhikhu Parekh, Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and Political Theory (Basingstoke, Hampshire, England: Macmillan, 2000), 215.
69. Jones, "Political Theory and Cultural Diversity," 49.
70. Avishai Margalit and Moshe Halbertal, "Liberalism and the Right to Culture," Social Research 61, no. 3 (1994): 491.
71. Shachar, Multicultural Jurisdictions, p. 43.
72. Richard Shweder, "What about Female Genital Mutilation? And Why Understanding Culture Matters in the First Place," in Engaging Cultural Differences: Multicultural Challenge in Liberal Democracies, edited by Richard A. Shweder, Martha Minow, and Hazel R. Markus (New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press, 2002), 222-26.
73. Carla Makhlouf Obermeyer, "Female Genital Surgeries: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable," Medical Anthropology Quarterly 13, no. 1 (1999): 92.
74. See also Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson, Democracy and Disagreement (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1996).
75. Martha C. Nussbaum and Jonathan Glover, eds., Women, Culture, and Development: A Study of Human Capabilities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994);
76. Martha C. Nussbaum, Sex and Social Justice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
77. I discuss the "Affair of the Scarf " in "Challenges of Multiculturalism in Democratic Education," in Public Education in a Multicultural Society, edited by Robert K. Fullinwider (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 156-79.
78. For an insightful and extended discussion of this controversy connected to a set of arguments for democratically deliberating about its resolution, see Seyla Benhabib, The Claims of Culture: Equality and Diversity in the Global Era (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002).
79. Anne Fadiman, The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999).
80. D. L. Coleman, "The Seattle Compromise: Multicultural Sensitivity and Americanization," Duke Law Review 47 (1998): 717-782. See also Richard Shweder, Engaging Cultural Differences, 231.
81. For discussions of the claims for descriptive representation for identity groups, see Anne Phillips, Engendering Democracy (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991);
82. Melissa Williams, Voice, Trust, and Memory (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998).
83. Taylor, Multiculturalism, 61.
84. John R. Danley, "Liberalism, Aboriginal Rights, and Cultural Minorities," Philosophy and Public Affairs 20, no. 2 (Spring 1991): 168-85.
85. For a sense of how heated the controversy about culturalism can be, see the exchange between David Bromwich, Michael Walzer, and Taylor in Dissent 42, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 89-106.
86. See, for example, Antonio Cassese, "The General Assembly: Historical Perspective, 1945-1989," in The United Nations and Human Rights: A Critical Appraisal, edited by Philip Alston (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 31.
87. See also William Alford, "Making a Goddess of Democracy from Loose Sand: Thoughts on Human Rights in the Peoples Republic of China," in Human Rights in Cross-Cultural Perspectives: A Quest for Consensus, edited by Abdullahi Ahmed An-Naim (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), 75.
88. Johannes Morsink, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Origins, Drafting, and Intent (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), xii.
89. See "Introduction" to Michael Ignatieff, Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry, edited by Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001): vii-xxxvii.
90. Morsink, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, x.
91. See John Rawls, Political Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), especially 195-200.
92. Margalit and Halbertal, "Liberalism and the Right to Culture," 491.
93. Alexis de Toqueville, Democracy in America, edited by J. P. Mayer (New York: Doubleday Anchor ed, 1969), p. 517.
94. The seminal study is Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).
95. For challenges (provoked by his article "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 [1995]: 65-78)
96. Putnam's empirical claims concerning the decline in associational memberships, see Sheri Berman, "Civic Society and the Col lapse of the Weimar Republic," World Politics 49, no. 3 (1997): 401-29;
97. Pamela Paxton, "Is Social Capital Declining in the United States? A Multiple Indicator Assessment," American Journal of Sociology 105, no. 1 ( July 1999): 88-127.
98. Nancy Rosenblum, Membership and Morals (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 32.
99. Kateb, "The Value of Association," 39.
100. Brian M. Barry, Culture and Equality: An Egalitarian Critique of Multiculturalism (Cambridge, England: Polity Press, 2001), 155-93.
101. See Rosenblum, Membership and Morals, 101ff;
102. Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 234 n18.
103. Rosenblum, Membership and Morals, 4.
104. For a justification of unions, see Stuart White, "Trade Unionism in a Liberal State," in Freedom of Association, edited by Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 330-56.
105. George Kateb, "The Value of Association," in Freedom of Association, edited by Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 60.
106. "The mutual adjustment of the basic liberties is justified," Rawls writes, "on grounds allowed by the priority of these liberties as a family, no one of which is in itself absolute." Rawls, Political Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 358.
107. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1999), 202.
108. Robert Post, "Prejudicial Appearances: The Logic of American Antidiscrimination Law," California Law Review 88, no. 1 ( January 2000): 1-40.
109. Joshua Cohen, "A More Democratic Liberalism," Michigan Law Review 92, no. 6 (1994): 1521-1543.
110. Judith Shklar, American Citizenship: The Quest for Inclusion (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 84.
111. Rosenblum, "Compelled Association," in Freedom of Association, 87.
112. For a call for a sociological account of employment discrimination, see Robert Post, "Prejudicial Appearances," 31-40.
113. Rosenblum, "Compelled Association," 87.
114. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 230.
115. Richard Epstein, "Free Association: The Incoherence of Antidiscrimination Laws," National Review LII, no. 19 (October 9, 2000): 38-40.
116. Laura Parker and Guillermo X. Garcia, "Boy Scout Troops Lose Funds, Meeting Places." USA Today, October 10, 2000, 1A.
117. For a defense of nondiscrimination in public schooling, see Amy Gutmann, Democratic Education (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999).
118. See Robert D. Putnam, Robert Leonardi, and Raffaella Y. Nanetti, Making Democracy Work (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); and Bowling Alone, 66.
119. See Carol Padden and Tom Humphries, Deaf in America: Voices from the Culture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 2 and passim.
120. Kim Isaac Eisler, Revenge of the Pequots: How a Small American Tribe Created the World's Most Profitable Casino (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001).
121. David D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 21.
122. See, for example, K. Anthony Appiah, "Race, Culture, Identity," in Appiah and Gutmann, Color Conscious: The Political Morality of Race (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 30-105.
123. See Susan Moller Okin, Justice, Gender and the Family (New York: Basic Books, 1991)
124. Iris Marion Young, Intersecting Voices (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997)
125. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble (New York: Routledge, 1999);
126. Catharine A. Mackinnon, Feminism Unmodified (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987).
127. See Ian Shapiro and Will Kymlicka, Ethnicity and Group Rights (New York: New York University Press, 1997);
128. Nathan Glazer, Ethnic Dilemmas: 1964-1982 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983).
129. See Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1991).
130. For general theoretical statements about social construction of identity, see Ernesto Laclau, ed., The Making of Political Identities (London: Verso, 1994);
131. Judith Butler, Ernesto Laclau, and Slavoj Zizek, Contingency, Hegemony, Universality (London: Verso, 2000).
132. See Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, & Organization 1, no. 2 (Fall 1985): 347.
133. David B. Wilkins, "Identities and Roles: Race, Recognition, and Professional Responsibility," Maryland Law Review, 57, no. 4 (1998): 1521-1522.
134. James T. Patterson, Brown v Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 73.
135. "Status Report on Probe of Election Practices in Florida during the 2000 Presidential Election," http://www.usccr.gov [accessed June 28, 2001].
136. For the importance of distinguishing between misfortune and injustice, see Judith N. Shklar, The Faces of Injustice (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990).
137. Hazel Rose Markus, Claude M. Steele, and Dorothy M. Steele, "Colorblindness as a Barrier to Exclusion," in "The End of Tolerance: Engaging Cultural Differences." Daedalus 129, no. 4 (Fall 2000): 248.
138. Jason Lamberton, The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, transcript, February 19, 2001.
139. For theories and principles of obligation, see Michael Walzer, Obligations: Essays on Disobedience, War and Citizenship (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970);
140. A. John Simmons, Justification and Legitimacy: Essays on Rights and Obligations (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
141. For arguments about special obligations as applied to the example of African American professionals, see Wilkins, "Identities and Roles," 1502-1594.
142. James Baldwin, "Introduction to Notes of a Native Son, 1984," in James Baldwin, Collected Essays, edited by Toni Morrison (New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 1998), 810.
143. See, for example, John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 293-301.
144. For a related perspective, see Ronald Dworkin, Sovereign Virtue: The Theory and Practice of Equality (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 231-36.
145. Richard John Neuhaus, The Naked Public Square: Religion and Democracy in America (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1984), 36.
146. Rawls, "The Idea of Public Reason Revisited." 64 The University of Chicago Law Review (Summer 1997): 775, 776.
147. Rawls, Political Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 212-254.
148. Robert Merrihew Adams, "Moral Faith," The Journal of Philosophy 92, no. 2 (February 1995): 77.
149. Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 42-44.
150. Adams, "Moral Faith," 81.
151. Rawls, Political Liberalism, 131-254.
152. King's famous "I Have a Dream" speech is exemplary in this regard. See Martin Luther King, Jr., A Testament of Hope: the Essential Writings of Martin Luther King, Jr., edited by James M. Washington (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 217-20.
153. See Gutmann, "Religion and State in the United States: A Defense of Two- Way Protection," in Rosenblum, ed., Religion and Law, 127-64.
154. King, A Testament of Hope, 293.
155. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, edited by J. P. Mayer (New York: Doubleday Anchor ed., 1969), 448.
156. Michael McConnell, "Accommodation of Religion: An Update and a Response to Critics," 60 George Washington Law Review 60 no. 3 (March 1992): 685-742, 739.
157. http://www.ppc.net/index.html [accessed October 31, 2001].
158. Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: Free Press, 1984), 4.
159. See also Doug McAdam, Freedom Summer (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988);
160. McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).
161. Putnam, Bowling Alone, 66.
162. Robert Wuthnow, "Mobilizing Civic Engagement: The Changing Impact of Religious Involvement," in Skocpol and Fiorina, eds., Civic Engagement, 338.
163. Putnam, Bowling Alone, 77.
164. Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0300/0003105.html [accessed February 5, 2002].
165. Sheikh Safar Abd Al-Rahman Al-Hawali, http://www.memri.org/[accessed February 5, 2002].
166. Michael Walzer, Obligations: Essays on Disobedience, War, and Citizenship, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), 121.
167. For a discussion of the justification of conscientious refusal, see Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 331-35.
168. Walzer, Obligations, 123.
169. I develop this argument in "Religious Freedom and Civic Responsibility," Washington and Lee Law Review 56, no. 3 (Summer 1999): 907-22.
170. John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration (Indianapolis, IN: Library of Liberal Arts, 1955), 52.
171. Walzer, Obligations, 123-24.
172. Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration, 48.
173. Joel Greenberg, "Protesting Tactics in West Bank, Israeli Reservists Refuse to Serve." The New York Times (Saturday February 2, 2002), A1.
174. Stephen L. Carter, The Culture of Disbelief (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 105-6.
175. Carter, The Culture of Disbelief, 106.
176. I discuss the implications for political morality of diversity within cultural and religious groups in "The Challenge of Multiculturalism in Political Ethics," Philosophy & Public Affairs 22, no. 3 (Summer 1993): 171-206.
177. Thomas C. Berg, "Slouching Toward Secularism: A Comment on Kiryas Joel School District v. Grumet," 44 Emory Law Journal 433, 434 (1995).
178. Jeffrey Rosen, "Kiryas Joel and Shaw v. Reno: A Text-Bound Interpretivist Approach," 26 Cumberland Law Review 387, 392 (1996).