Beyond "identity"

Theory and Society

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 1-47

  Brubaker, Rogers ^a,b   Cooper, Frederick ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034344702     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1007068714468     Document Type: Article

References (194)

1. From "Politics and the English Language," in George Orwell, A Collection of Essays (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1953), 169-170.
2. For a tempered critique of identity politics, see Todd Gitlin, The Twilight of Common Dreams: Why America Is Wracked by Culture Wars (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), and for a sophisticated defense, Robin D.G. Kelley, Yo' Mama's Disfunktional!: Fighting the Culture Wars in Urban America (Boston: Beacon, 1997). For a suggestion that the high noon of identity politics may have passed, see Ross Posnock, "Before and After Identity Politics," Raritan 15 (Summer 1995): 95-115; and David A. Hollinger, "Nationalism, Cosmopolitanism, and the United States," in Noah Pickus, editor. Immigration and Citizenship in the Twenty-first Century (Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield, 1998).
3. For a tempered critique of identity politics, see Todd Gitlin, The Twilight of Common Dreams: Why America Is Wracked by Culture Wars (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), and for a sophisticated defense, Robin D.G. Kelley, Yo' Mama's Disfunktional!: Fighting the Culture Wars in Urban America (Boston: Beacon, 1997). For a suggestion that the high noon of identity politics may have passed, see Ross Posnock, "Before and After Identity Politics," Raritan 15 (Summer 1995): 95-115; and David A. Hollinger, "Nationalism, Cosmopolitanism, and the United States," in Noah Pickus, editor. Immigration and Citizenship in the Twenty-first Century (Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield, 1998).
4. For a tempered critique of identity politics, see Todd Gitlin, The Twilight of Common Dreams: Why America Is Wracked by Culture Wars (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), and for a sophisticated defense, Robin D.G. Kelley, Yo' Mama's Disfunktional!: Fighting the Culture Wars in Urban America (Boston: Beacon, 1997). For a suggestion that the high noon of identity politics may have passed, see Ross Posnock, "Before and After Identity Politics," Raritan 15 (Summer 1995): 95-115; and David A. Hollinger, "Nationalism, Cosmopolitanism, and the United States," in Noah Pickus, editor. Immigration and Citizenship in the Twenty-first Century (Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield, 1998).
5. For a tempered critique of identity politics, see Todd Gitlin, The Twilight of Common Dreams: Why America Is Wracked by Culture Wars (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), and for a sophisticated defense, Robin D.G. Kelley, Yo' Mama's Disfunktional!: Fighting the Culture Wars in Urban America (Boston: Beacon, 1997). For a suggestion that the high noon of identity politics may have passed, see Ross Posnock, "Before and After Identity Politics," Raritan 15 (Summer 1995): 95-115; and David A. Hollinger, "Nationalism, Cosmopolitanism, and the United States," in Noah Pickus, editor. Immigration and Citizenship in the Twenty-first Century (Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield, 1998).
6. Avrum Stroll, "Identity," Encyclopedia of Philosophy (New York: MacMillan, 1967), Vol. IV, p. 121-124. For a contemporary philosophical treatment, see Bartholomaeus Boehm, Identitaet und Identifikation: Zur Persisten: physikalischer Gegenstaende (Frankfurth/Main: Peter Lang, 1989). On the history and vicissitudes of "identity" and cognate terms, see W. J. M. Mickenzie, Political Identity (New York: St. Martin's 1978), 19-27, and John D. Ely, "Community and the Politics of Identity: Toward the Genealogy of a Nation-State Concept," Stanford Humanities Review 5/2 (1997), 76ff.
7. Avrum Stroll, "Identity," Encyclopedia of Philosophy (New York: MacMillan, 1967), Vol. IV, p. 121-124. For a contemporary philosophical treatment, see Bartholomaeus Boehm, Identitaet und Identifikation: Zur Persisten: physikalischer Gegenstaende (Frankfurth/Main: Peter Lang, 1989). On the history and vicissitudes of "identity" and cognate terms, see W. J. M. Mickenzie, Political Identity (New York: St. Martin's 1978), 19-27, and John D. Ely, "Community and the Politics of Identity: Toward the Genealogy of a Nation-State Concept," Stanford Humanities Review 5/2 (1997), 76ff.
8. Avrum Stroll, "Identity," Encyclopedia of Philosophy (New York: MacMillan, 1967), Vol. IV, p. 121-124. For a contemporary philosophical treatment, see Bartholomaeus Boehm, Identitaet und Identifikation: Zur Persisten: physikalischer Gegenstaende (Frankfurth/Main: Peter Lang, 1989). On the history and vicissitudes of "identity" and cognate terms, see W. J. M. Mickenzie, Political Identity (New York: St. Martin's 1978), 19-27, and John D. Ely, "Community and the Politics of Identity: Toward the Genealogy of a Nation-State Concept," Stanford Humanities Review 5/2 (1997), 76ff.
9. Avrum Stroll, "Identity," Encyclopedia of Philosophy (New York: MacMillan, 1967), Vol. IV, p. 121-124. For a contemporary philosophical treatment, see Bartholomaeus Boehm, Identitaet und Identifikation: Zur Persisten: physikalischer Gegenstaende (Frankfurth/Main: Peter Lang, 1989). On the history and vicissitudes of "identity" and cognate terms, see W. J. M. Mickenzie, Political Identity (New York: St. Martin's 1978), 19-27, and John D. Ely, "Community and the Politics of Identity: Toward the Genealogy of a Nation-State Concept," Stanford Humanities Review 5/2 (1997), 76ff.
10. See Philip Gleason, "Identifying Identity: A Semantic History," Journal of American History 69/4 (March 1983): 910-931. The 1930s Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan: 1930-1935) contains no entry on identity, but it does have one on "identification" - largely focused on fingerprinting and other modes of judicial marking of individuals (Thorstein Sellin, Vol. 7, pp. 573-575). The 1968 International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan), contains an article on "identification, political" by William Buchanan (Vol. 7, pp. 57-61), which focuses on a "person's identification with a group" - including class, party, religion - and another on "identity, psychosocial," by Erik Erikson (ibid., 61-65), which focuses on the individual's "role integration in his group."
11. See Philip Gleason, "Identifying Identity: A Semantic History," Journal of American History 69/4 (March 1983): 910-931. The 1930s Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan: 1930-1935) contains no entry on identity, but it does have one on "identification" - largely focused on fingerprinting and other modes of judicial marking of individuals (Thorstein Sellin, Vol. 7, pp. 573-575). The 1968 International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan), contains an article on "identification, political" by William Buchanan (Vol. 7, pp. 57-61), which focuses on a "person's identification with a group" - including class, party, religion - and another on "identity, psychosocial," by Erik Erikson (ibid., 61-65), which focuses on the individual's "role integration in his group."
12. See Philip Gleason, "Identifying Identity: A Semantic History," Journal of American History 69/4 (March 1983): 910-931. The 1930s Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan: 1930-1935) contains no entry on identity, but it does have one on "identification" - largely focused on fingerprinting and other modes of judicial marking of individuals (Thorstein Sellin, Vol. 7, pp. 573-575). The 1968 International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan), contains an article on "identification, political" by William Buchanan (Vol. 7, pp. 57-61), which focuses on a "person's identification with a group" - including class, party, religion - and another on "identity, psychosocial," by Erik Erikson (ibid., 61-65), which focuses on the individual's "role integration in his group."
13. See Philip Gleason, "Identifying Identity: A Semantic History," Journal of American History 69/4 (March 1983): 910-931. The 1930s Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan: 1930-1935) contains no entry on identity, but it does have one on "identification" - largely focused on fingerprinting and other modes of judicial marking of individuals (Thorstein Sellin, Vol. 7, pp. 573-575). The 1968 International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan), contains an article on "identification, political" by William Buchanan (Vol. 7, pp. 57-61), which focuses on a "person's identification with a group" - including class, party, religion - and another on "identity, psychosocial," by Erik Erikson (ibid., 61-65), which focuses on the individual's "role integration in his group."
14. Gleason, "Identifying Identity," 914ff; for the appropriation of Erikson's work in political science, see Mackenzie, Political Identity
15. Gleason, "Identifying Identity," 914ff; for the appropriation of Erikson's work in political science, see Mackenzie, Political Identity
16. Gleason, "Identifying Identity," 915-918.
17. Anselm Strauss, Mirrors and Masks: The Search for an Identity (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1959).
18. Erving Goffman, Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963); Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966); Peter Berger, Brigitte Berger, and Hansfried Kellner, The Homeless Mind: Modernization and Consciousness (New York: Random House, 1973); Peter Berger, "Modern Identity: Crisis and Continuity," in The Cultural Drama: Modern Identities and Social Ferment, ed. Wilton S. Dillon (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1974).
19. Erving Goffman, Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963); Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966); Peter Berger, Brigitte Berger, and Hansfried Kellner, The Homeless Mind: Modernization and Consciousness (New York: Random House, 1973); Peter Berger, "Modern Identity: Crisis and Continuity," in The Cultural Drama: Modern Identities and Social Ferment, ed. Wilton S. Dillon (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1974).
20. Erving Goffman, Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963); Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966); Peter Berger, Brigitte Berger, and Hansfried Kellner, The Homeless Mind: Modernization and Consciousness (New York: Random House, 1973); Peter Berger, "Modern Identity: Crisis and Continuity," in The Cultural Drama: Modern Identities and Social Ferment, ed. Wilton S. Dillon (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1974).
21. Erving Goffman, Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963); Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966); Peter Berger, Brigitte Berger, and Hansfried Kellner, The Homeless Mind: Modernization and Consciousness (New York: Random House, 1973); Peter Berger, "Modern Identity: Crisis and Continuity," in The Cultural Drama: Modern Identities and Social Ferment, ed. Wilton S. Dillon (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1974).
22. As Philip Gleason has pointed out, the popularization of the term began well before the turbulence of the mid-and late 1960s. Gleason attributes this initial popularization to the mid-century prestige and cognitive authority of the social sciences, the wartime and postwar vogue of national character studies, and the postwar critique of mass society, which newly problematized the "relationship of the individual to society" ("Identifying Identity," 922ff).
23. Erikson characterized identity as "a process 'located' in the core of the individual and yet also in the core of his communal culture, a process which establishes … the identity of those two identities" (Identity: Youth and Crisis [New York: Norton, 1968], 22, italics in the original). Although this is a relatively late formulation, the link was already established in Erikson's immediately postwar writings.
24. See for example Craig Calhoun, "New Social Movements of the Early Nineteenth Century," Social Science History 17/3 (1993): 385-427.
25. Mackenzie, Political Identity, 11, reporting a seminar paper of 1974; Coles is quoted in Gleason, "Identifying Identity," 913. Gleason notes that the problem was remarked even earlier: "by the late 1960s the terminological situation had gotten completely out of hand" (ibid., 915). Erikson himself lamented the "indiscriminate" use of "identity" and "identity crisis" in Identity: Youth and Crisis, published in 1968 (p. 16).
26. Mackenzie, Political Identity, 11, reporting a seminar paper of 1974; Coles is quoted in Gleason, "Identifying Identity," 913. Gleason notes that the problem was remarked even earlier: "by the late 1960s the terminological situation had gotten completely out of hand" (ibid., 915). Erikson himself lamented the "indiscriminate" use of "identity" and "identity crisis" in Identity: Youth and Crisis, published in 1968 (p. 16).
27. Mackenzie, Political Identity, 11, reporting a seminar paper of 1974; Coles is quoted in Gleason, "Identifying Identity," 913. Gleason notes that the problem was remarked even earlier: "by the late 1960s the terminological situation had gotten completely out of hand" (ibid., 915). Erikson himself lamented the "indiscriminate" use of "identity" and "identity crisis" in Identity: Youth and Crisis, published in 1968 (p. 16).
28. Mackenzie, Political Identity, 11, reporting a seminar paper of 1974; Coles is quoted in Gleason, "Identifying Identity," 913. Gleason notes that the problem was remarked even earlier: "by the late 1960s the terminological situation had gotten completely out of hand" (ibid., 915). Erikson himself lamented the "indiscriminate" use of "identity" and "identity crisis" in Identity: Youth and Crisis, published in 1968 (p. 16).
29. Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., "Editors' Introduction: Multiplying Identities," in Identities, ed. Appiah and Gates (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 1.
30. Between 1990 and 1997 alone, for example, the number of journal articles in the Current Contents database with "identity" or "identities" in the title more than doubled, while the total number of articles increased by about 20 percent. James Fearon found a similar increase in the number of dissertation abstracts containing "identity," even after controlling for the increase in the total number of dissertations abstracted. See "What Is Identity (As We Now Use the Word)?" unpublished manuscript, Dept. of Political Science, Stanford University, p. 1.
31. One might also speak of a narrower "'identity crisis'crisis." Coined and popularized by Erikson, and applied to social and political collectivities by Lucian Pye and others, the notion of "identity crisis" took off in the 1960s. (For Erikson's own retrospective reflections on the origins and vicissitudes of the expression, see the Prologue to Identity: Youth and Crisis, pp. 16ff.) Crises have become (oxymoronically) chronic; and putative crises of identity have proliferated to the point of destroying whatever meaning the concept may once have had. Already in 1968, Erikson could lament that the expression was being used in a "ritualized" fashion (ibid., p. 16). A recent bibliographical sampling revealed that "identity crises" were predicated not only of the usual suspects - above all ethnic, racial, national, gender, and sexual identities - but also of such heterogeneous subjects as fifth-century Gaul, the forestry profession, histologists, the French medical corps during the First World War, the internet, the Sonowal Kacharis, technical education in India, early childhood special education, French hospital nurses, kindergarten teachers, TV, sociology, Japan's consumer groups, the European Space Agency, Japan's MITI, the National Association of Broadcasting, Cathay Pacific Airways, Presbyterians, the CIA, universities, Clorox, Chevrolet, lawyers, the San Francisco Redevelopment Agency, black theology, eighteenth-century Scottish literature, and, our favorite, dermopterous fossils.
32. One might also speak of a narrower "'identity crisis'crisis." Coined and popularized by Erikson, and applied to social and political collectivities by Lucian Pye and others, the notion of "identity crisis" took off in the 1960s. (For Erikson's own retrospective reflections on the origins and vicissitudes of the expression, see the Prologue to Identity: Youth and Crisis, pp. 16ff.) Crises have become (oxymoronically) chronic; and putative crises of identity have proliferated to the point of destroying whatever meaning the concept may once have had. Already in 1968, Erikson could lament that the expression was being used in a "ritualized" fashion (ibid., p. 16). A recent bibliographical sampling revealed that "identity crises" were predicated not only of the usual suspects - above all ethnic, racial, national, gender, and sexual identities - but also of such heterogeneous subjects as fifth-century Gaul, the forestry profession, histologists, the French medical corps during the First World War, the internet, the Sonowal Kacharis, technical education in India, early childhood special education, French hospital nurses, kindergarten teachers, TV, sociology, Japan's consumer groups, the European Space Agency, Japan's MITI, the National Association of Broadcasting, Cathay Pacific Airways, Presbyterians, the CIA, universities, Clorox, Chevrolet, lawyers, the San Francisco Redevelopment Agency, black theology, eighteenth-century Scottish literature, and, our favorite, dermopterous fossils.
33. Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power, which appeared in 1994, "explores the relationship of racial, ethnic and national identities and power hierarchies within national and global arenas … [It] responds to the paradox of our time: the growth of a global economy and transnational movements of populations produce or perpetuate distinctive cultural practices and differentiated identities" (Statement of "aims and scope" printed on inside front cover). Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture, whose first issue appeared in 1995, is concerned with "the formations of, and transformations in, socially significant identities, their attendant forms of material exclusion and power, as well as the political and cultural possibilities open[ed] up by these identifications" (statement printed on inside front cover).
34. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
35. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
36. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
37. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
38. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
39. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
40. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
41. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
42. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
43. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
44. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
45. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
46. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
47. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
48. Zygmunt Bauman, "Soil, Blood, and Identity," Sociological Review 40 (1992): 675-701; Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72; Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1988-1990); Craig Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," in Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford, U.K. and Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1994); S. N. Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, "The Construction of Collective Identity," Archives européènnes de sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72-102; Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Jürgen Habermas, Staatsbürgerschaft und rationale Identität: Überlegungen zur europaïschen Zukunft (St. Gallen: Erker, 1991); David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Claude Lévi-Strauss, editor, L'identité: Seminaire interdisciplinare (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Amartya Sen, "Goals, Commitment, and Identity," Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341-355; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 605-649; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition: An Essay"; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); 25-74; Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," in Tilly, editor. Citizenship, Identity and Social History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
49. On experience-near and experience-distant concepts - the terms are derived from Heinz Kohut - see Clifford Geertz, "From the Native's Point of View," in Local Knowledge (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 57. The basic contrast goes back at least to Durkheim's Rules of Sociological Method, which criticized the sociological use of "pre-notions" or lay concepts that have bee "created by experience and for it." Emile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method, trans. S. Solovay and J. Mueller, ed. G. E. G. Catlin, 8th ed. (New York: Free Press, 1964), 14-46.
50. On experience-near and experience-distant concepts - the terms are derived from Heinz Kohut - see Clifford Geertz, "From the Native's Point of View," in Local Knowledge (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 57. The basic contrast goes back at least to Durkheim's Rules of Sociological Method, which criticized the sociological use of "pre-notions" or lay concepts that have bee "created by experience and for it." Emile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method, trans. S. Solovay and J. Mueller, ed. G. E. G. Catlin, 8th ed. (New York: Free Press, 1964), 14-46.
51. As Loïc Wacquant notes of race, the "continual barter between folk and analytical notions, the uncontrolled conflation of social and sociological understandings of 'race'" is "intrinsic to the category. From its inception, the collective fiction labeled 'race'… has always mixed science with common sense and traded on the complicity between them" ("For an Analytic of Racial Domination," Political Power and Social Theory 11 [1997]: 222-223).
52. On "ethnic identity entrepreneurs," see Barbara Lal, "Ethnic Identity Entrepreneurs: Their Role in Transracial and Intercountry Adoptions," Asian Pacific Migration Journal 6 (1997): 385-413.
53. This argument is developed further in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), chapter 1.
54. Mara Loveman, "Is 'race' essential? A comment on Bonilla-Silva," American Sociological Review. November 1999. See also Wacquant, "For an Analytic of Racial Domination"; Rupert Taylor, "Racial Terminology and the Question of 'Race' in South Africa," manuscript, 7; and Max Weber, Economy and Society, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (New York: Bedminster Press, 1968), 1: 385ff, for a strikingly modern argument questioring the analytical utility of the notions of "race," "ethnic group," and "nation."
55. Mara Loveman, "Is 'race' essential? A comment on Bonilla-Silva," American Sociological Review. November 1999. See also Wacquant, "For an Analytic of Racial Domination"; Rupert Taylor, "Racial Terminology and the Question of 'Race' in South Africa," manuscript, 7; and Max Weber, Economy and Society, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (New York: Bedminster Press, 1968), 1: 385ff, for a strikingly modern argument questioring the analytical utility of the notions of "race," "ethnic group," and "nation."
56. Mara Loveman, "Is 'race' essential? A comment on Bonilla-Silva," American Sociological Review. November 1999. See also Wacquant, "For an Analytic of Racial Domination"; Rupert Taylor, "Racial Terminology and the Question of 'Race' in South Africa," manuscript, 7; and Max Weber, Economy and Society, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (New York: Bedminster Press, 1968), 1: 385ff, for a strikingly modern argument questioring the analytical utility of the notions of "race," "ethnic group," and "nation."
57. Mara Loveman, "Is 'race' essential? A comment on Bonilla-Silva," American Sociological Review. November 1999. See also Wacquant, "For an Analytic of Racial Domination"; Rupert Taylor, "Racial Terminology and the Question of 'Race' in South Africa," manuscript, 7; and Max Weber, Economy and Society, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (New York: Bedminster Press, 1968), 1: 385ff, for a strikingly modern argument questioring the analytical utility of the notions of "race," "ethnic group," and "nation."
58. On "nation" as a "political fiction," see Louis Pinto, "Une fiction politique: la nation," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 64 (September 1986): 45-50, a Bourdieuian appreciation of the studies of nationalism carried out by the eminent Hungarian historian Jenö Szücs. On race as a "collective fiction," see Wacquant, "For an Analytic of Racial Domination," 222-223. The key work by Bourdieu in this domain is "L'identité et la représentation: éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (November 1980), part of which is reprinted in Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, trans. Mathew Adamson, ed. John B. Thompson (Cambridge: Harvard, 1991).
59. On "nation" as a "political fiction," see Louis Pinto, "Une fiction politique: la nation," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 64 (September 1986): 45-50, a Bourdieuian appreciation of the studies of nationalism carried out by the eminent Hungarian historian Jenö Szücs. On race as a "collective fiction," see Wacquant, "For an Analytic of Racial Domination," 222-223. The key work by Bourdieu in this domain is "L'identité et la représentation: éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (November
60. On "nation" as a "political fiction," see Louis Pinto, "Une fiction politique: la nation," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 64 (September 1986): 45-50, a Bourdieuian appreciation of the studies of nationalism carried out by the eminent Hungarian historian Jenö Szücs. On race as a "collective fiction," see Wacquant, "For an Analytic of Racial Domination," 222-223. The key work by Bourdieu in this domain is "L'identité et la représentation: éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (November 1980), part of which is reprinted in Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, trans. Mathew Adamson, ed. John B. Thompson (Cambridge: Harvard, 1991).
61. On "nation" as a "political fiction," see Louis Pinto, "Une fiction politique: la nation," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 64 (September 1986): 45-50, a Bourdieuian appreciation of the studies of nationalism carried out by the eminent Hungarian historian Jenö Szücs. On race as a "collective fiction," see Wacquant, "For an Analytic of Racial Domination," 222-223. The key work by Bourdieu in this domain is "L'identité et la représentation: éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (November 1980), part of which is reprinted in Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, trans. Mathew Adamson, ed. John B. Thompson (Cambridge: Harvard, 1991).
62. Even Durkheim's uncompromisingly objectivist sociological manifesto shies away from this extreme position; see The Rules of Sociological Method, chapter 2.
63. Wacquant, "For an Analytic of Racial Domination," 222. See also Wacquant's criticism of the concept of "underclass" in "L'underclass urbaine dans l'imaginaire social et scientifique americain," in Serge Paugam, editor, L'exclusion: l'état des savoirs (Paris: La découverte. 1996): 248-262.
64. Wacquant, "For an Analytic of Racial Domination," 222. See also Wacquant's criticism of the concept of "underclass" in "L'underclass urbaine dans l'imaginaire social et scientifique americain," in Serge Paugam, editor, L'exclusion: l'état des savoirs (Paris: La découverte. 1996): 248-262.
65. For a sustained and influential example, see Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York and London: Routledge, 1990).
66. For a recent review, see Calhoun. "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," 9-36.
67. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, for example, slides from an impeccably constructivist characterization of "racialized social systems" as "societies… partially structured by the placement of actors in racial categories" to the claim that such placement "produces definite social relations between the races," where "the races" are characterized as real social groups with differing objective interests ("Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation," American Sociological Review 62 (1996), 469-470). In their influential Racial Formation in the United States (second edition. New York: Routledge, 1994), Michael Omi and Howard Winant strive to be more consistently constructivist. But they too fail to remain faithful to their constructivist definition of "race" as an "unstable and 'decentered' complex of social meanings constantly being transformed by political struggle … [and as] a concept which signifies and symbolizes social conflicts and interests by referring to different types of human bodies" (55, emphasis in original). The historical experiences of "white European" immigrants, they argue, were and remain fundamentally different from those of "racial minority groups" (including Latinos and Asian Americans as well as African Americans and Native Americans); the "ethnicity paradigm" is applicable to the former but not - because of its "neglect of race per se" - to the latter (14-23). This sharp distinction between "ethnic" and "racial" groups neglects the fact - now well established in the historical literature - that the "whiteness" of several European immigrant groups was "achieved" after an initial period in which they were often categorized in racial or race-like terms as non-white; it also neglects what might be called "de-racialization" processes among some groups they consider fundamentally "racial." On the former, see James R. Barrett and David Roediger, "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History 16 (1997): 3-44; on the latter, see Joel Perlman and Roger Waldinger, "Second Generation Decline? Children of Immigrants, Past and Present - a Reconsideration," International Migration Review 31/4 (Winter 1997), 893-922, esp. 903ff.
68. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, for example, slides from an impeccably constructivist characterization of "racialized social systems" as "societies… partially structured by the placement of actors in racial categories" to the claim that such placement "produces definite social relations between the races," where "the races" are characterized as real social groups with differing objective interests ("Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation," American Sociological Review 62 (1996), 469-470). In their influential Racial Formation in the United States (second edition. New York: Routledge, 1994), Michael Omi and Howard Winant strive to be more consistently constructivist. But they too fail to remain faithful to their constructivist definition of "race" as an "unstable and 'decentered' complex of social meanings constantly being transformed by political struggle … [and as] a concept which signifies and symbolizes social conflicts and interests by referring to different types of human bodies" (55, emphasis in original). The historical experiences of "white European" immigrants, they argue, were and remain fundamentally different from those of "racial minority groups" (including Latinos and Asian Americans as well as African Americans and Native Americans); the "ethnicity paradigm" is applicable to the former but not - because of its "neglect of race per se" - to the latter (14-23). This sharp distinction between "ethnic" and "racial" groups neglects the fact - now well established in the historical literature - that the "whiteness" of several European immigrant groups was "achieved" after an initial period in which they were often categorized in racial or race-like terms as non-white; it also neglects what might be called "de-racialization" processes among some groups they consider fundamentally "racial." On the former, see James R. Barrett and David Roediger, "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History 16 (1997): 3-44; on the latter, see Joel Perlman and Roger Waldinger, "Second Generation Decline? Children of Immigrants, Past and Present - a Reconsideration," International Migration Review 31/4 (Winter 1997), 893-922, esp. 903ff.
69. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, for example, slides from an impeccably constructivist characterization of "racialized social systems" as "societies… partially structured by the placement of actors in racial categories" to the claim that such placement "produces definite social relations between the races," where "the races" are characterized as real social groups with differing objective interests ("Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation," American Sociological Review 62 (1996), 469-470). In their influential Racial Formation in the United States (second edition. New York: Routledge, 1994), Michael Omi and Howard Winant strive to be more consistently constructivist. But they too fail to remain faithful to their constructivist definition of "race" as an "unstable and 'decentered' complex of social meanings constantly being transformed by political struggle … [and as] a concept which signifies and symbolizes social conflicts and interests by referring to different types of human bodies" (55, emphasis in original). The historical experiences of "white European" immigrants, they argue, were and remain fundamentally different from those of "racial minority groups" (including Latinos and Asian Americans as well as African Americans and Native Americans); the "ethnicity paradigm" is applicable to the former but not - because of its "neglect of race per se" - to the latter (14-23). This sharp distinction between "ethnic" and "racial" groups neglects the fact - now well established in the historical literature - that the "whiteness" of several European immigrant groups was "achieved" after an initial period in which they were often categorized in racial or race-like terms as non-white; it also neglects what might be called "de-racialization" processes among some groups they consider fundamentally "racial." On the former, see James R. Barrett and David Roediger, "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History 16 (1997): 3-44; on the latter, see Joel Perlman and Roger Waldinger, "Second Generation Decline? Children of Immigrants, Past and Present - a Reconsideration," International Migration Review 31/4 (Winter 1997), 893-922, esp. 903ff.
70. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, for example, slides from an impeccably constructivist characterization of "racialized social systems" as "societies… partially structured by the placement of actors in racial categories" to the claim that such placement "produces definite social relations between the races," where "the races" are characterized as real social groups with differing objective interests ("Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation," American Sociological Review 62 (1996), 469-470). In their influential Racial Formation in the United States (second edition. New York: Routledge, 1994), Michael Omi and Howard Winant strive to be more consistently constructivist. But they too fail to remain faithful to their constructivist definition of "race" as an "unstable and 'decentered' complex of social meanings constantly being transformed by political struggle … [and as] a concept which signifies and symbolizes social conflicts and interests by referring to different types of human bodies" (55, emphasis in original). The historical experiences of "white European" immigrants, they argue, were and remain fundamentally different from those of "racial minority groups" (including Latinos and Asian Americans as well as African Americans and Native Americans); the "ethnicity paradigm" is applicable to the former but not - because of its "neglect of race per se" - to the latter (14-23). This sharp distinction between "ethnic" and "racial" groups neglects the fact - now well established in the historical literature - that the "whiteness" of several European immigrant groups was "achieved" after an initial period in which they were often categorized in racial or race-like terms as non-white; it also neglects what might be called "de-racialization" processes among some groups they consider fundamentally "racial." On the former, see James R. Barrett and David Roediger, "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History 16 (1997): 3-44; on the latter, see Joel Perlman and Roger Waldinger, "Second Generation Decline? Children of Immigrants, Past and Present - a Reconsideration," International Migration Review 31/4 (Winter 1997), 893-922, esp. 903ff.
71. Walter Benn Michaels has argued that ostensibly constructivist notions of cultural identity, insofar as they are advanced - as they often are advanced in practice, especially in connection with race, ethnicity, and nationality - as reasons for our holding, or valuing, a set of beliefs or practices, cannot avoid essentialist appeals to who we are. "There are no anti-essentialist accounts of identity … [T]he essentialism inheres not in the description of the identity but in the attempt to derive the practices from the identity - we do this because we are this. Hence anti-essentialism … must take the form not of producing more sophisticated accounts of identity (that is, more sophisticated essentialisms) but of ceasing to explain what people do or should do by reference to who they are and/or what culture they belong to" ("Race into Culture: A Critical Genealogy of Cultural Identity," in Identities, ed. Appiah and Gates, p. 61n). Note, however, the crucial elision at the end of the quoted passage between "do" and "should do." Essentialism inheres, pace Michaels, less in the "attempt to derive [in an explanatory mode] the practice from the identity" than in the attempt to prescribe the practices on the basis of an ascribed identity: you ought to do this because you are this.
72. For a different approach to this question, see Fearon, "What is Identity (As We Now Use the Word)?"
73. See, for example, Jean L. Cohen, "Strategy or Identity: New Theoretical Paradigms and Contemporary Social Movements," Social Research 52/4 (Winter 1985): 663-716.
74. Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity."
75. This opposition depends on a narrow conceptualization of the category "interest," one restricted to interests understood to be directly derivable from social structure (see for example ibid., 624). If interest is instead understood to be culturally or discursively constituted, to be dependent on the discursive identification of interests and (more fundamentally) interest-bearing units, to be "constituted and reconstituted in time and over time," like narrative identities in Somer's account, then the opposition loses much of its force.
76. Some strands of identitarian theorizing emphasize the relative autonomy of self-understanding vis-à-vis social location. The tendency is most pronounced in the fourth and the fifth uses sketched below.
77. The contemporary conceptualization of identity as unmoored from social structure is foreign to most premodern social settings, where self-and other-identifications are generally understood as following directly from social structure. See, for example, Peter Berger, "On the Obsolescence of the Concept of Honor," 172-181 in Revisions: Changing Perspectives in Moral Philosophy, ed. Stanley Hauerwas and Alasdair MacIntyre (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1983).
78. Alberto Melucci, "The Process of Collective Identity," in Social Movements and Culture, ed. Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).
79. Much recent work on gender, to be sure, has criticized as "essentialist" the idea that women share a fundamental sameness. Yet certain strands of recent work nonetheless predicate such sameness of some "group" defined by the intersection of gender with other categorical attributes (race, ethnicity, class, sexual orientation). See, for example, Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990).
80. See, for example, Harold R. Isaacs, Idols of the Tribe: Group Identity and Political Change (New York: Harper & Row, 1975); Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism, The Quest for Understanding (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 195-209.
81. See, for example, Harold R. Isaacs, Idols of the Tribe: Group Identity and Political Change (New York: Harper & Row, 1975); Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism, The Quest for Understanding (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 195-209.
82. For a sophisticated historical and philosophical account, see Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989).
83. For a key statement by Erikson himself, see Identity: Youth and Crisis, 22.
84. See, for example, Calhoun, "The Problem of Identity in Collective Action"; Melucci, "The Process of Collective Identity"; Roger Gould, Insurgent Identities: Class, Community and Protest in Paris from 1848 to the Commune (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
85. See, for example, Calhoun, "The Problem of Identity in Collective Action"; Melucci, "The Process of Collective Identity"; Roger Gould, Insurgent Identities: Class, Community and Protest in Paris from 1848 to the Commune (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
86. See, for example, Calhoun, "The Problem of Identity in Collective Action"; Melucci, "The Process of Collective Identity"; Roger Gould, Insurgent Identities: Class, Community and Protest in Paris from 1848 to the Commune (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
87. See, for example, Stuart Hall, "Introduction: Who Needs 'Identity?'" in Questions of Cultural Identity, edited by Stuart Hall and Paul du Gay (London: Sage, 1996).
88. See, for example, Richard Werbner, "Multiple Identities, Plural Arenas," in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger, editors, Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London: Zed, 1996), 1-26.
89. Two important, although partial, exceptions deserve note. Walter Benn Michaels has formulated a brilliant and provocative critique of the concept of "cultural identity" in "Race into Culture." But that essay focuses less on analytical uses of the notion of "identity" than on the difficulty of specifying what makes "our" culture or "our" past count as "our own" - when the reference is not to one's actual cultural practices or one's actual personal past but to some putative group culture or group past - without implicitly invoking the notion of "race." He concludes that "our sense of culture is characteristically meant to displace race, but … culture has turned out to be a way of continuing rather than repudiating racial thought. It is only the appeal to race that … gives notions like losing our culture, preserving it, [or] … restoring people's culture to them … their pathos" (61-62). Richard Handler argues that "we should be as suspicious of 'identity' as we have learned to be of 'culture,' 'tradition,' 'nation,' and 'ethnic group'" (27), but then pulls his critical punches. His central argument - that the salience of "identity" in contemporary Western, especially American society "does not mean that the concept can be applied unthinkingly to other places and times" (27) - is certainly true, but it implies that the concept can be fruitfully applied in contemporary Western settings, something that other passages in the same article and his own work on Québécois nationalism tend to call into question. See "Is 'Identity' a Useful Cross-Cultural Concept?" in Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, ed. John Gillis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); the quotations are from p. 27. See also Handler, Nationalism and the Politics of Culture in Quebec (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
90. Two important, although partial, exceptions deserve note. Walter Benn Michaels has formulated a brilliant and provocative critique of the concept of "cultural identity" in "Race into Culture." But that essay focuses less on analytical uses of the notion of "identity" than on the difficulty of specifying what makes "our" culture or "our" past count as "our own" - when the reference is not to one's actual cultural practices or one's actual personal past but to some putative group culture or group past - without implicitly invoking the notion of "race." He concludes that "our sense of culture is characteristically meant to displace race, but … culture has turned out to be a way of continuing rather than repudiating racial thought. It is only the appeal to race that … gives notions like losing our culture, preserving it, [or] … restoring people's culture to them … their pathos" (61-62). Richard Handler argues that "we should be as suspicious of 'identity' as we have learned to be of 'culture,' 'tradition,' 'nation,' and 'ethnic group'" (27), but then pulls his critical punches. His central argument - that the salience of "identity" in contemporary Western, especially American society "does not mean that the concept can be applied unthinkingly to other places and times" (27) - is certainly true, but it implies that the concept can be fruitfully applied in contemporary Western settings, something that other passages in the same article and his own work on Québécois nationalism tend to call into question. See "Is 'Identity' a Useful Cross-Cultural Concept?" in Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, ed. John Gillis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); the quotations are from p. 27. See also Handler, Nationalism and the Politics of Culture in Quebec (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
91. Stuart Hall, "Who Needs 'Identity?'" 2.
92. "I use 'identity' to refer to the meeting point, the point of suture, between on the one hand the discourses and practices which attempt to 'interpellate,' speak to us to hail us into place as the social subjects of particular discourses, and on the other hand, the processes which produce subjectivities, which construct us as subjects which can be 'spoken.' Identities are thus points of temporary attachment to the subject positions which discursive practices construct for us" (ibid., 5-6).
93. Claude Lévi-Strauss, concluding remarks to Lévi-Strauss, éd., L'identité, 332.
94. Lawrence Grossberg, "Identity and Cultural Studies: Is That All There Is." in Hall and du Gay, editors. Questions of Cultural Identity, 87-88.
95. Melucci, "The Process of Collective Identity," 46.
96. Here the blurring between categories of analysis and categories of practice is particularly striking. As Richard Handler has argued, scholarly conceptions of "nation" and "national identity" have tended to replicate key features of nationalist ideology, notably the axiomatic understanding of boundedness and homogeneity in the putative "nation" (Nationalism and the Politics of Culture in Quebec). The same argument could be made about "race" or "ethnicity."
97. See, for example, Isaacs, Idols of the Tribe; Connor, "Beyond Reason: The Nature of the Ethnonational Bond," in Connor, Ethnonationalism.
98. See, for example, Isaacs, Idols of the Tribe; Connor, "Beyond Reason: The Nature of the Ethnonational Bond," in Connor, Ethnonationalism.
99. Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity"; the quotations are from 605. 606, 614, and 618, emphasis in original. See also Somers's "Narrativity, Narrative Identity, and Social Action: Rethinking English Working-Class Formation," Social Science History 16/4 (Winter 1992): 591-630. For another argument for seeing identity in terms of narrative, see Denis-Constant Martin, "The Choices of Identity," Social Identities 1/1 (1995), 5-20; see also idem, "Introduction: Identités et politique: Récit, mythe, et idéologie," 13-38 in Denis-Constant Martin, editor, Carles d'identité: Comment dit-on "nous" en politique? (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1994).
100. Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity"; the quotations are from 605. 606, 614, and 618, emphasis in original. See also Somers's "Narrativity, Narrative Identity, and Social Action: Rethinking English Working-Class Formation," Social Science History 16/4 (Winter 1992): 591-630. For another argument for seeing identity in terms of narrative, see Denis-Constant Martin, "The Choices of Identity," Social Identities 1/1 (1995), 5-20; see also idem, "Introduction: Identités et politique: Récit, mythe, et idéologie," 13-38 in Denis-Constant Martin, editor, Carles d'identité: Comment dit-on "nous" en politique? (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1994).
101. Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity"; the quotations are from 605. 606, 614, and 618, emphasis in original. See also Somers's "Narrativity, Narrative Identity, and Social Action: Rethinking English Working-Class Formation," Social Science History 16/4 (Winter 1992): 591-630. For another argument for seeing identity in terms of narrative, see Denis-Constant Martin, "The Choices of Identity," Social Identities 1/1 (1995), 5-20; see also idem, "Introduction: Identités et politique: Récit, mythe, et idéologie," 13-38 in Denis-Constant Martin, editor, Carles d'identité: Comment dit-on "nous" en politique? (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1994).
102. Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity"; the quotations are from 605. 606, 614, and 618, emphasis in original. See also Somers's "Narrativity, Narrative Identity, and Social Action: Rethinking English Working-Class Formation," Social Science History 16/4 (Winter 1992): 591-630. For another argument for seeing identity in terms of narrative, see Denis-Constant Martin, "The Choices of Identity," Social Identities 1/1 (1995), 5-20; see also idem, "Introduction: Identités et politique: Récit, mythe, et idéologie," 13-38 in Denis-Constant Martin, editor, Carles d'identité: Comment dit-on "nous" en politique? (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1994).
103. Charles Tilly, "Citizenship, Identity and Social History," 1-17 in Citizenship, Identity and Social History, ed. Charles Tilly (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). The quotations are from p. 7.
104. Craig Calhoun, "The Problem of Identity in Collective Action," in Joan Huber, editor. Macro Micro Linkages in Sociology (Newbury Park, Cal.: Sage, 1991). The quotations are from pp. 53, 64-67.
105. Ibid., 53, 68.
106. Calhoun, "Social Theory and the Politics of Identity," 9.
107. On the merits of "identification", see Hall, "Who Needs 'Identity?'" Although Hall's is a Foucauldian/post-Freudian understanding of "identification," drawing on the "discursive and psychoanalytic repertoire," and quite different from that proposed here, he does usefully warn that identification is "almost as tricky as, though preferable to, 'identity' itself; and certainly no guarantee against the conceptual difficulties which have beset the latter" (p. 2). See also Andreas Glaeser, "Divided in Unity: The Hermeneutics of Self and Other in the Postunification Berlin Police" (Ph.D. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1997), esp. chapter 1.
108. On the merits of "identification", see Hall, "Who Needs 'Identity?'" Although Hall's is a Foucauldian/post-Freudian understanding of "identification," drawing on the "discursive and psychoanalytic repertoire," and quite different from that proposed here, he does usefully warn that identification is "almost as tricky as, though preferable to, 'identity' itself; and certainly no guarantee against the conceptual difficulties which have beset the latter" (p. 2). See also Andreas Glaeser, "Divided in Unity: The Hermeneutics of Self and Other in the Postunification Berlin Police" (Ph.D. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1997), esp. chapter 1.
109. Craig Calhoun, Nationalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 36ff.
110. For an anthropological perspective, usefully extending the Barthian model, see Richard Jenkins, "Rethinking Ethnicity: Identity, Categorization and Power," Ethnic and Racial Studies 17/2 (April 1994): 197-223, and Jenkins, Social Identity (London and New York: Routledge, 1996).
111. For an anthropological perspective, usefully extending the Barthian model, see Richard Jenkins, "Rethinking Ethnicity: Identity, Categorization and Power," Ethnic and Racial Studies 17/2 (April 1994): 197-223, and Jenkins, Social Identity (London and New York: Routledge, 1996).
112. Peter Berger, "Modern Identity," 163-164, makes a similar point, though he phrases it in terms of a dialectic - and possible conflict - between subjective and objective identity.
113. Gérard Noiriel, La tyrannie du national (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1991), 155-180; idem, "L'identification des citoyens: Naissance de l'état civil républicain," Genèses 13 (1993): 3-28; idem, "Surveiller des déplacements ou identifier les personnes? Contribution à l'histoire du passeport en France de la ler à la III République," Genèses 30 (1998): 77-100; Béatrice Fraenkel, La signature: genèse d'un signe (Paris: Gallimard, 1992). A number of scholars, including Jane Caplan, historian at Bryn Mawr College, and John Torpey, sociologist at University of California, Irvine, are currently engaged in projects on passports and other identification documents.
114. Gérard Noiriel, La tyrannie du national (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1991), 155-180; idem, "L'identification des citoyens: Naissance de l'état civil républicain," Genèses 13 (1993): 3-28; idem, "Surveiller des déplacements ou identifier les personnes? Contribution à l'histoire du passeport en France de la ler à la III République," Genèses 30 (1998): 77-100; Béatrice Fraenkel, La signature: genèse d'un signe (Paris: Gallimard, 1992). A number of scholars, including Jane Caplan, historian at Bryn Mawr College, and John Torpey, sociologist at University of California, Irvine, are currently engaged in projects on passports and other identification documents.
115. Gérard Noiriel, La tyrannie du national (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1991), 155-180; idem, "L'identification des citoyens: Naissance de l'état civil républicain," Genèses 13 (1993): 3-28; idem, "Surveiller des déplacements ou identifier les personnes? Contribution à l'histoire du passeport en France de la ler à la III République," Genèses 30 (1998): 77-100; Béatrice Fraenkel, La signature: genèse d'un signe (Paris: Gallimard, 1992). A number of scholars, including Jane Caplan, historian at Bryn Mawr College, and John Torpey, sociologist at University of California, Irvine, are currently engaged in projects on passports and other identification documents.
116. Gérard Noiriel, La tyrannie du national (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1991), 155-180; idem, "L'identification des citoyens: Naissance de l'état civil républicain," Genèses 13 (1993): 3-28; idem, "Surveiller des déplacements ou identifier les personnes? Contribution à l'histoire du passeport en France de la ler à la III République," Genèses 30 (1998): 77-100; Béatrice Fraenkel, La signature: genèse d'un signe (Paris: Gallimard, 1992). A number of scholars, including Jane Caplan, historian at Bryn Mawr College, and John Torpey, sociologist at University of California, Irvine, are currently engaged in projects on passports and other identification documents.
117. Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in Graham Burchell et al., editors. The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). 87-104. Similar conceptions have been applied to colonial societies, especially in regard to the way colonizers' schemes for classification and enumeration shape and indeed constitute the social phenomena (such as "tribe" and "caste" in India) being classified. See, in particular, Bernard Cohn, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
118. Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in Graham Burchell et al., editors. The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). 87-104. Similar conceptions have been applied to colonial societies, especially in regard to the way colonizers' schemes for classification and enumeration shape and indeed constitute the social phenomena (such as "tribe" and "caste" in India) being classified. See, in particular, Bernard Cohn, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
119. On the dilemmas, difficulties, and ironies involved in "administering identity," in authoritatively determining who belongs to what category in the implementation of race-conscious law, see Christopher A. Ford, "Administering Identity: The Determination of 'Race' in Race-Conscious Law," California Law Review 82 (1994): 1231-1285.
120. Charles Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
121. Melissa Nobles, "'Responding with Good Sense': The Politics of Race and Censuses in Contemporary Brazil," Ph.D. Dissertation, Yale University, 1995.
122. See, for example, Melucci, "The Process of Collective Identity"; Martin, "The Choices of Identity."
123. See, for example, Melucci, "The Process of Collective Identity"; Martin, "The Choices of Identity."
124. Stuart Hall, "Introduction: Who Needs 'Identity?'"; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity."
125. Stuart Hall, "Introduction: Who Needs 'Identity?'"; Margaret Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity."
126. See Hall, "Introduction," 2ff; and Alan Finlayson, "Psychology, psychoanalysis and theories of nationalism," Nations and Nationalism 4/2 (1998): 157ff.
127. See Hall, "Introduction," 2ff; and Alan Finlayson, "Psychology, psychoanalysis and theories of nationalism," Nations and Nationalism 4/2 (1998): 157ff.
128. Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990).
129. An extensive anthropological literature on African and other societies, for example, describes healing cults, spirit possession cults, witchcraft eradication movements, and other collective phenomena that help to constitute particular forms of self-understanding, particular ways in which individuals situate themselves socially. See studies ranging from classics by Victor Turner, Schism and Continuity in an African Society: A Study of Ndembu Village Life (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1957) and I. M. Lewis, Ecstatic Religion: An Anthropological Study of Spirit Possession and Shamanism (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1971) to more recent work by Paul Stoller, Fusion of the Worlds: An Ethnography of Possession among the Songhay of Niger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and Janice Boddy, Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men and The Zar Cult in Northern Sudan (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989).
130. An extensive anthropological literature on African and other societies, for example, describes healing cults, spirit possession cults, witchcraft eradication movements, and other collective phenomena that help to constitute particular forms of self-understanding, particular ways in which individuals situate themselves socially. See studies ranging from classics by Victor Turner, Schism and Continuity in an African Society: A Study of Ndembu Village Life (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1957) and I. M. Lewis, Ecstatic Religion: An Anthropological Study of Spirit Possession and Shamanism (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1971) to more recent work by Paul Stoller, Fusion of the Worlds: An Ethnography of Possession among the Songhay of Niger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and Janice Boddy, Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men and The Zar Cult in Northern Sudan (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989).
131. An extensive anthropological literature on African and other societies, for example, describes healing cults, spirit possession cults, witchcraft eradication movements, and other collective phenomena that help to constitute particular forms of self-understanding, particular ways in which individuals situate themselves socially. See studies ranging from classics by Victor Turner, Schism and Continuity in an African Society: A Study of Ndembu Village Life (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1957) and I. M. Lewis, Ecstatic Religion: An Anthropological Study of Spirit Possession and Shamanism (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1971) to more recent work by Paul Stoller, Fusion of the Worlds: An Ethnography of Possession among the Songhay of Niger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and Janice Boddy, Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men and The Zar Cult in Northern Sudan (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989).
132. An extensive anthropological literature on African and other societies, for example, describes healing cults, spirit possession cults, witchcraft eradication movements, and other collective phenomena that help to constitute particular forms of self-understanding, particular ways in which individuals situate themselves socially. See studies ranging from classics by Victor Turner, Schism and Continuity in an African Society: A Study of Ndembu Village Life (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1957) and I. M. Lewis, Ecstatic Religion: An Anthropological Study of Spirit Possession and Shamanism (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1971) to more recent work by Paul Stoller, Fusion of the Worlds: An Ethnography of Possession among the Songhay of Niger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and Janice Boddy, Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men and The Zar Cult in Northern Sudan (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989).
133. For a poignant example, see Slavenka Drakulic's account of being "overcome by nationhood" as a result of the war in the former Yugoslavia, in Balkan Express: Fragments from the Other Side of the War, trans. Maja Soljan (New York: W.W. Norton, 1993), 50-52.
134. See, for example. Peter Berger, "Modern Identity: Crisis and Continuity," 162.
135. See, for example, Craig Calhoun, "The Problem of Identity in Collective Action," 68, characterizing "ordinary identity."
136. For a good example of the latter, see Mary Waters's analysis of the optional, exceptionally unconstraining ethnic "identities" - or what Herbert Gans has called the "symbolic ethnicity" - of third-and fourth-generation descendants of European Catholic immigrants to the United States in Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
137. Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. 1978), 62ff.
138. On the centrality of categorical commonality to modern nationalism, see Handler, Nationalism and the Politics of Culture in Quebec, and Calhoun, Nationalism, chapter 2.
139. On the centrality of categorical commonality to modern nationalism, see Handler, Nationalism and the Politics of Culture in Quebec, and Calhoun, Nationalism, chapter 2.
140. See, for example, the discussion of the "anti-categorical imperative" in Mustafa Emirbayer and Jeff Goodwin, "Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency," American Journal of Sociology 99/6 (May 1994): 1414.
141. Lonsdale, "When Did the Gusii or Any Other Group Become a Tribe?" Kenya Historical Review 5/1 (1977): 355-368; Abner Cohen, Custom and Politics in Urban Africa: A Study of Migrants in Yoruba Towns (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969). Anthropologists were influenced by the work of Fredrick Barth, editor. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organisation of Cultural Difference (London: Allen & Unwin, 1969), especially Earth's "Introduction," 9-38. More recent and systematic constructivist accounts include Jean-Loup Amselle and Elikia M'Bokolo, editors, Au coeur de l'ethnie: Ethnies, tribalisme et état en Afrique (Paris: Editions la Découverte, 1985); Leroy Vail, editor, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Terence Ranger, "The Invention of Tradition in Africa," in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, editors, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 211-262.
142. Lonsdale, "When Did the Gusii or Any Other Group Become a Tribe?" Kenya Historical Review 5/1 (1977): 355-368; Abner Cohen, Custom and Politics in Urban Africa: A Study of Migrants in Yoruba Towns (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969). Anthropologists were influenced by the work of Fredrick Barth, editor. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organisation of Cultural Difference (London: Allen & Unwin, 1969), especially Earth's "Introduction," 9-38. More recent and systematic constructivist accounts include Jean-Loup Amselle and Elikia M'Bokolo, editors, Au coeur de l'ethnie: Ethnies, tribalisme et état en Afrique (Paris: Editions la Découverte, 1985); Leroy Vail, editor, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Terence Ranger, "The Invention of Tradition in Africa," in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, editors, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 211-262.
143. Lonsdale, "When Did the Gusii or Any Other Group Become a Tribe?" Kenya Historical Review 5/1 (1977): 355-368; Abner Cohen, Custom and Politics in Urban Africa: A Study of Migrants in Yoruba Towns (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969). Anthropologists were influenced by the work of Fredrick Barth, editor. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organisation of Cultural Difference (London: Allen & Unwin, 1969), especially Earth's "Introduction," 9-38. More recent and systematic constructivist accounts include Jean-Loup Amselle and Elikia M'Bokolo, editors, Au coeur de l'ethnie: Ethnies, tribalisme et état en Afrique (Paris: Editions la Découverte, 1985); Leroy Vail, editor, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Terence Ranger, "The Invention of Tradition in Africa," in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, editors, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 211-262.
144. Lonsdale, "When Did the Gusii or Any Other Group Become a Tribe?" Kenya Historical Review 5/1 (1977): 355-368; Abner Cohen, Custom and Politics in Urban Africa: A Study of Migrants in Yoruba Towns (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969). Anthropologists were influenced by the work of Fredrick Barth, editor. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organisation of Cultural Difference (London: Allen & Unwin, 1969), especially Earth's "Introduction," 9-38. More recent and systematic constructivist accounts include Jean-Loup Amselle and Elikia M'Bokolo, editors, Au coeur de l'ethnie: Ethnies, tribalisme et état en Afrique (Paris: Editions la Découverte, 1985); Leroy Vail, editor, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Terence Ranger, "The Invention of Tradition in Africa," in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, editors, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 211-262.
145. Lonsdale, "When Did the Gusii or Any Other Group Become a Tribe?" Kenya Historical Review 5/1 (1977): 355-368; Abner Cohen, Custom and Politics in Urban Africa: A Study of Migrants in Yoruba Towns (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969). Anthropologists were influenced by the work of Fredrick Barth, editor. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organisation of Cultural Difference (London: Allen & Unwin, 1969), especially Earth's "Introduction," 9-38. More recent and systematic constructivist accounts include Jean-Loup Amselle and Elikia M'Bokolo, editors, Au coeur de l'ethnie: Ethnies, tribalisme et état en Afrique (Paris: Editions la Découverte, 1985); Leroy Vail, editor, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Terence Ranger, "The Invention of Tradition in Africa," in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, editors, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 211-262.
146. Lonsdale, "When Did the Gusii or Any Other Group Become a Tribe?" Kenya Historical Review 5/1 (1977): 355-368; Abner Cohen, Custom and Politics in Urban Africa: A Study of Migrants in Yoruba Towns (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969). Anthropologists were influenced by the work of Fredrick Barth, editor. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organisation of Cultural Difference (London: Allen & Unwin, 1969), especially Earth's "Introduction," 9-38. More recent and systematic constructivist accounts include Jean-Loup Amselle and Elikia M'Bokolo, editors, Au coeur de l'ethnie: Ethnies, tribalisme et état en Afrique (Paris: Editions la Découverte, 1985); Leroy Vail, editor, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Terence Ranger, "The Invention of Tradition in Africa," in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, editors, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 211-262.
147. Identity talk has become popular among Africanists in recent years, and the typical insistence that identity is multiple is rarely followed by explanation of why what is multiplied should be considered identity. For a case in point, see Richard Werbner, "Multiple Identities, Plural Arenas," in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger, editors, Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London: Zed, 1996), 1-26. Africanist scholars have been critical of the concepts of race and ethnicity, but often still use "identity" in an unexamined way. See, for example, the special issue of Journal of Southern African Studies 20/3 (1994), coordinated by Saul Dubow, John Sharp, and Edwin N. Wilmsen. "Ethnicity and Identity in Southern Africa." A more reflective approach-deploying a range of terms to indicate different forms of affiliation and examining what "identical" actually means in particular contexts - may be found in Claude Fay, "'Car nous ne faisons qu'un': identités, équivalences, homologies au Maasina (Mali)," Cahier des Sciences Humaines 31/2 (1995) 427-456. Identitarian positions are severely criticized in Jean-Francois Bayart, L'illusion identitaire (Paris: Fayard, 1996).
148. Identity talk has become popular among Africanists in recent years, and the typical insistence that identity is multiple is rarely followed by explanation of why what is multiplied should be considered identity. For a case in point, see Richard Werbner, "Multiple Identities, Plural Arenas," in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger, editors, Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London: Zed, 1996), 1-26. Africanist scholars have been critical of the concepts of race and ethnicity, but often still use "identity" in an unexamined way. See, for example, the special issue of Journal of Southern African Studies 20/3 (1994), coordinated by Saul Dubow, John Sharp, and Edwin N. Wilmsen. "Ethnicity and Identity in Southern Africa." A more reflective approach-deploying a range of terms to indicate different forms of affiliation and examining what "identical" actually means in particular contexts - may be found in Claude Fay, "'Car nous ne faisons qu'un': identités, équivalences, homologies au Maasina (Mali)," Cahier des Sciences Humaines 31/2 (1995) 427-456. Identitarian positions are severely criticized in Jean-Francois Bayart, L'illusion identitaire (Paris: Fayard, 1996).
149. Identity talk has become popular among Africanists in recent years, and the typical insistence that identity is multiple is rarely followed by explanation of why what is multiplied should be considered identity. For a case in point, see Richard Werbner, "Multiple Identities, Plural Arenas," in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger, editors, Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London: Zed, 1996), 1-26. Africanist scholars have been critical of the concepts of race and ethnicity, but often still use "identity" in an unexamined way. See, for example, the special issue of Journal of Southern African Studies 20/3 (1994), coordinated by Saul Dubow, John Sharp, and Edwin N. Wilmsen. "Ethnicity and Identity in Southern Africa." A more reflective approach-deploying a range of terms to indicate different forms of affiliation and examining what "identical" actually means in particular contexts - may be found in Claude Fay, "'Car nous ne faisons qu'un': identités, équivalences, homologies au Maasina (Mali)," Cahier des Sciences Humaines 31/2 (1995) 427-456. Identitarian positions are severely criticized in Jean-Francois Bayart, L'illusion identitaire (Paris: Fayard, 1996).
150. Identity talk has become popular among Africanists in recent years, and the typical insistence that identity is multiple is rarely followed by explanation of why what is multiplied should be considered identity. For a case in point, see Richard Werbner, "Multiple Identities, Plural Arenas," in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger, editors, Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London: Zed, 1996), 1-26. Africanist scholars have been critical of the concepts of race and ethnicity, but often still use "identity" in an unexamined way. See, for example, the special issue of Journal of Southern African Studies 20/3 (1994), coordinated by Saul Dubow, John Sharp, and Edwin N. Wilmsen. "Ethnicity and Identity in Southern Africa." A more reflective approach-deploying a range of terms to indicate different forms of affiliation and examining what "identical" actually means in particular contexts - may be found in Claude Fay, "'Car nous ne faisons qu'un': identités, équivalences, homologies au Maasina (Mali)," Cahier des Sciences Humaines 31/2 (1995) 427-456. Identitarian positions are severely criticized in Jean-Francois Bayart, L'illusion identitaire (Paris: Fayard, 1996).
151. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People (Oxford: C arendon, 1940).
152. See the pioneering study of Abner Cohen, "Cultural Strategies in the Organization of Trading Diasporas," in Claude Meillassoux, editor, The Development of Indigenous Trade and Markets (London: Oxford Univers ty Press, 1971).
153. Paul Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone (Oxford: Currey, 1996), 79.
154. John Lonsdale, "States and Social Processes in Africa," African Studies Review 24/2-3 (1981): 139-225.
155. Jane Guyer, "Household and Community," African Studies Review 24/2-3 (1981): 87-137; Jean-Loup Amselle, Logiques métisses: Anthropologie de l'identité, en Afrique et ailleurs (Paris: Payot, 1990).
156. Jane Guyer, "Household and Community," African Studies Review 24/2-3 (1981): 87-137; Jean-Loup Amselle, Logiques métisses: Anthropologie de l'identité, en Afrique et ailleurs (Paris: Payot, 1990).
157. Sharon Hutchinson, Nuer Dilemmas: Coping with Money, War, and the State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 29
158. Gerard Prunier, The Rwandan Crisis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996) and Jean-Pierre Chrétien, Le Défi de l'ethnisme: Rwanda et Burundi: 1990-1996 (Paris: Karthala, 1997). Similarly, Richards's account of conflict in Sierra Leone is notable for his stress on networks over groups, on creolization over differentiation, and on overlapping moral visions over conflicts of "cultures" (Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest).
159. Gerard Prunier, The Rwandan Crisis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996) and Jean-Pierre Chrétien, Le Défi de l'ethnisme: Rwanda et Burundi: 1990-1996 (Paris: Karthala, 1997). Similarly, Richards's account of conflict in Sierra Leone is notable for his stress on networks over groups, on creolization over differentiation, and on overlapping moral visions over conflicts of "cultures" (Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest).
160. For an elaboration of this argument, see Rogers Brubaker. "Myths and Misconceptions in the Study of Nationalism," in John Hall, editor, The State of the Nation: Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
161. For a fuller version of this argument, see Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, chapter 2. For a parallel argument about Yugoslavia, see Veljko Vujacic and Victor Zaslavsky, "The Causes of Disintegration in the USSR and Yugoslavia," Telos 88 (1991): 120-140.
162. For a fuller version of this argument, see Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, chapter 2. For a parallel argument about Yugoslavia, see Veljko Vujacic and Victor Zaslavsky, "The Causes of Disintegration in the USSR and Yugoslavia," Telos 88 (1991): 120-140.
163. Some peripheral Soviet regions, to be sure, had already experienced national movements in the last years of the Russian empire (and during the ensuing civil war), but even in those regions, the social basis of such movements was weak, and identification with "the nation" was limited to a relatively small part of the population. Elsewhere, the significance of the regime in constituting national divisions was even more prominent. On Soviet "nation-making" in the 1920s, see Yuri Slezkine, "The U.S.S.R. as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism," Slavic Review 53 (Summer 1994): 414-452; Terry D. Martin, "An Affirmative Action Empire: Ethnicity and the Soviet State, 1923-1938," Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1996.
164. Some peripheral Soviet regions, to be sure, had already experienced national movements in the last years of the Russian empire (and during the ensuing civil war), but even in those regions, the social basis of such movements was weak, and identification with "the nation" was limited to a relatively small part of the population. Elsewhere, the significance of the regime in constituting national divisions was even more prominent. On Soviet "nation-making" in the 1920s, see Yuri Slezkine, "The U.S.S.R. as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism," Slavic Review 53 (Summer 1994): 414-452; Terry D. Martin, "An Affirmative Action Empire: Ethnicity and the Soviet State, 1923-1938," Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1996.
165. For data on nationality and language, see Gosudarstvennyi Komitet po Statistike, Natsional'nyi Sostav Naseleniia SSSR (Moscow: Finansy i Statistika, 1991): 78-79.
166. Gitlin, Twilight, 134.
167. One of the best introductions to constructivist analysis in American history is Earl Lewis, "Race," in Stanley Kutler, editors, Encyclopedia of the United States in the Twentieth Century (New York: Scribners, 1996), 129-160. See also Barbara Fields, "Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America," New Left Review 181 (May-June 1990): 95-118.
168. One of the best introductions to constructivist analysis in American history is Earl Lewis, "Race," in Stanley Kutler, editors, Encyclopedia of the United States in the Twentieth Century (New York: Scribners, 1996), 129-160. See also Barbara Fields, "Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America," New Left Review 181 (May-June 1990): 95-118.
169. Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 1975). More recent works on this formative period include a special issue of William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Series, 54/1 (1997), "Constructing Race: Differentiating Peoples in the Early Modern World," and Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in Northern America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998).
170. Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 1975). More recent works on this formative period include a special issue of William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Series, 54/1 (1997), "Constructing Race: Differentiating Peoples in the Early Modern World," and Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in Northern America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998).
171. Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 1975). More recent works on this formative period include a special issue of William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Series, 54/1 (1997), "Constructing Race: Differentiating Peoples in the Early Modern World," and Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in Northern America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998).
172. The different ways in which race was configured in the Americas was one of subjects in which comparative history came into being, notably in the aftermath of Frank Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen: The Negro in the Americas (New York: Knopf, 1946). An influential short statement is Charles Wagley, "On the Concept of Social Race in the Americas," 531-545 in Contemporary Cultures and Societies in Latin America, ed. D. B. Heath and R. N. Adams (New York: Random House, 1965). A more recent constructivist argument about the historical specificity of the idea of being "white" is exemplified in David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991).
173. The different ways in which race was configured in the Americas was one of subjects in which comparative history came into being, notably in the aftermath of Frank Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen: The Negro in the Americas (New York: Knopf, 1946). An influential short statement is Charles Wagley, "On the Concept of Social Race in the Americas," 531-545 in Contemporary Cultures and Societies in Latin America, ed. D. B. Heath and R. N. Adams (New York: Random House, 1965). A more recent constructivist argument about the historical specificity of the idea of being "white" is exemplified in David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991).
174. The different ways in which race was configured in the Americas was one of subjects in which comparative history came into being, notably in the aftermath of Frank Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen: The Negro in the Americas (New York: Knopf, 1946). An influential short statement is Charles Wagley, "On the Concept of Social Race in the Americas," 531-545 in Contemporary Cultures and Societies in Latin America, ed. D. B. Heath and R. N. Adams (New York: Random House, 1965). A more recent constructivist argument about the historical specificity of the idea of being "white" is exemplified in David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991).
175. One of the foundational texts of what is sometimes considered black nationalism, Martin Delany's account of his voyage to Africa, is notable for its lack of interest in the cultural practices of the Africans he encountered. What counted for him was that a Christian of African origin would find his destiny in ridding himself of oppression in the United States and bringing Christian civilization to Africa. See Martin R. Delany and Robert Campbell, Search for a Place: Black Separatism and Africa 1860, ed. Howard H. Bell (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1969). For an illuminating recent book on African American-African connections - and the differing ways in which linkages were made while cultural distinctions were emphasized - see James Campbell, Songs of Zion: The African Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States and South Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
176. One of the foundational texts of what is sometimes considered black nationalism, Martin Delany's account of his voyage to Africa, is notable for its lack of interest in the cultural practices of the Africans he encountered. What counted for him was that a Christian of African origin would find his destiny in ridding himself of oppression in the United States and bringing Christian civilization to Africa. See Martin R. Delany and Robert Campbell, Search for a Place: Black Separatism and Africa 1860, ed. Howard H. Bell (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1969). For an illuminating recent book on African American-African connections - and the differing ways in which linkages were made while cultural distinctions were emphasized - see James Campbell, Songs of Zion: The African Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States and South Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
177. Eric Lott, "The New Cosmopolitanism: Whose America?" Transition 72 (Winter 1996): 108-135.
178. For one such contribution, see Kwame Anthony Appiah, In My Father's House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
179. This is the point emphasized by Walter Benn Michaels ("Race into Culture"): the assignment of individuals to cultural identities is even more problematic than the definition of those identities.
180. Alisdair MacIntyre, After Virtue (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 22.
181. Iris Marion Young, "Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship," Ethics 99 (January 1989): 257, 258. See also Young's Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).
182. Iris Marion Young, "Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship," Ethics 99 (January 1989): 257, 258. See also Young's Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).
183. Young, "Polity and Group Difference," 267, 261.
184. Ibid., 267, 268.
185. See especially the lucid and influential books by Will Kymlicka: Liberalism, Community, and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991) and Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995).
186. See especially the lucid and influential books by Will Kymlicka: Liberalism, Community, and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991) and Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995).
187. Adam Przeworski, "Proletariat into a Class: The Process of Class Formation from Karl Kautsky's The Class Struggle' to Recent Controversies," Politics and Society 7 (1977): 372.
188. Pierre Bourdieu, "L'identité et la représentation: Éléments pour une réflexion critique sur l'idée de région," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63-72.
189. David Laitin, "Marginality: A Microperspective," Rationality and Society 7/1 (January 1995): 31-57.
190. In a debate with Young, the philosopher Nancy Fraser has juxtaposed a politics of "recognition" to one of "redistribution," arguing that both are needed, since some groups are exploited as well as stigmatized or unrecognized. Strikingly, both parties to the debate treat group boundaries as clear-cut, and both therefore conceive of progressive politics as involving intergroup coalitions. Both neglect other forms of political action that do not presuppose commonality or "groupness." Nancy Fraser, "From Redistribution to Recognition? Dilemmas of Justice in a 'Post-Socialist'Age," New Left Review 212 (1995): 68-93; Iris Marion Young, "'Unruly Categories,'A Critique of Nancy Eraser's Dual Systems Theory," ibid., 222 (1997): 147-160.
191. In a debate with Young, the philosopher Nancy Fraser has juxtaposed a politics of "recognition" to one of "redistribution," arguing that both are needed, since some groups are exploited as well as stigmatized or unrecognized. Strikingly, both parties to the debate treat group boundaries as clear-cut, and both therefore conceive of progressive politics as involving intergroup coalitions. Both neglect other forms of political action that do not presuppose commonality or "groupness." Nancy Fraser, "From Redistribution to Recognition? Dilemmas of Justice in a 'Post-Socialist'Age," New Left Review 212 (1995): 68-93; Iris Marion Young, "'Unruly Categories,'A Critique of Nancy Eraser's Dual Systems Theory," ibid., 222 (1997): 147-160.
192. Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Audie Klotz, Norms in International Relations: The Struggle Against Apartheid (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995). See also the classic study of Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974).
193. Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Audie Klotz, Norms in International Relations: The Struggle Against Apartheid (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995). See also the classic study of Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974).
194. Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Audie Klotz, Norms in International Relations: The Struggle Against Apartheid (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995). See also the classic study of Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974).