Annual research review: Secular trends in child and adolescent mental health

Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines

Volumn 56, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 370-393

  Collishaw, Stephan ^a  

^a CARDIFF UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

antisocial; depression; psychopathology; secular change; Time trends

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; CHILD; DEVELOPED COUNTRY; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; HUMAN; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; MENTAL DISORDERS; SOCIOECONOMICS; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA;

ADOLESCENT; CHILD; DEVELOPED COUNTRIES; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; HUMANS; INTERNATIONALITY; MENTAL DISORDERS; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS;

EID: 84923538529     PISSN: 00219630     EISSN: 14697610     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12372     Document Type: Article

References (172)

1. Achenbach, T.M., Dumenci, L., &, Rescorla, L.A., (2002a). Ten-year comparisons of problems and competencies for national samples of youth: Self, parent and teacher reports. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 10, 194-203.
2. Achenbach, T.M., Dumenci, L., &, Rescorla, L.A., (2002b). Is American student behaviour getting worse? Teacher-ratings over an 18-year period. School Psychology Review, 31, 428-442.
3. Achenbach, T.M., Dumenci, L., &, Rescorla, L.A., (2003). Are American children's problems still getting worse? A 23-year comparison. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 1-11.
4. Amato, P.R., (2001). Children of divorce in the 1990s: An update of the Amato and Keith (1991) meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 355-370.
5. Amato, P.R., &, Keith, B., (1991). Parental divorce and the well-being of children-a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 26-46.
6. Arsenault, L., Bowes, L., &, Shakoor, S., (2010). Bullying victimization in youths and mental health problems: 'Much ado about nothing'? Psychological Medicine, 40, 717-729.
7. Atladottir, H.O., Gyllenberg, D., Langridge, A., Sandin, S., Hansen, S.N., Leonard, H.,... &, Leonard, H., (2014). The increasing prevalence of reported diagnoses of childhood psychiatric disorders: A descriptive multinational comparison. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, published online May 2014 [Epub ahead of print].
8. Backman, O., Estrada, F., Nilsson, A., &, Shannon, D., (2014). The life course of male and female offenders. British Journal of Criminology, 54, 393-410.
9. Baird, G., Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., Meldrum, D., &, Charman, T., (2006). Prevalence of disorders of the autism spectrum in a population cohort of children in South Thames: The Special Needs and Autism Project (SNAP). Lancet, 368, 210-215.
10. Barnard, J., Potter, D., Broach, S., &, Prior, A,. (2002). Autism in schools: crisis or challenge? London: National Autistic Society.
11. Barr, B., Taylor-Robinson, D., Scott-Samuel, A., McKee, M., &, Stuckler, D., (2012). Suicides associated with the 2008-10 economic recession in England: time trend analysis. British Medical Journal, 345, e5142.
12. Birmaher, B., Williamson, D.E., Dahl, R.E., Axelson, D.A., Kaufman, J., Dorn, L.D., &, Ryan, N.D., (2004). Clinical presentation and course of depression in youth: Does onset in childhood differ from onset in adolescence? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 63-70.
13. Boyle, C.A., Boulet, S., Schieve, L.A., Cohen, R.A., Blumberg, S.J., Yeargin-Allsopp, M.,... &, Kogan, M.D., (2011). Trends in the prevalence of developmental disabilities in US children, 1997-2008. Pediatrics, 127, 1034-1042.
14. Bradley, R.H., &, Corwyn, R.F., (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371-399.
15. Burke, K.C., Burke, J.D., Rae, D.A., &, Regier, D.A., (1991). Comparing age at onset of major depression in five US community populations. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 789-795.
16. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (2012). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders-autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 14 sites, United States, 2008. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 61, 1-19.
17. Chang, S., Stuckler, D., Yip, P., &, Gunnell, D., (2013). Impact of 2008 global economic crisis on suicide: time trend study in 54 countries. British Medical Journal, 347, f5239.
18. Cluver, L., Gardner, F., &, Operario, D., (2007). Psychological distress amongst AIDS-orphaned children in urban South Africa. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 755-763.
19. Collishaw, S., Gardner, F., Maughan, B., Scott, J., &, Pickles, A., (2012). Do historical changes in parent-child relationships explain increases in youth conduct problems? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 119-132.
20. Collishaw, S., Goodman, R., Ford, T., Rabe-Hesketh, S., &, Pickles, A., (2009). How far are associations between child, family, and community factors and child psychopathology informant-specific and informant-general? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 571-580.
21. Collishaw, S., Goodman, R., Pickles, A., &, Maughan, B., (2007). Modelling the contribution of changes in family life to time trends in adolescent conduct problems. Social Science and Medicine, 65, 2576-2587.
22. Collishaw, S., Maughan, B., Goodman, R., &, Pickles, A., (2004). Time trends in adolescent mental health. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1350-1362.
23. Collishaw, S., Maughan, B., Natarajan, L., &, Pickles, A., (2010). Trends in adolescent emotional problems in England: A comparison of two national cohorts twenty years apart. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 885-894.
24. Costello, E.J., Compton, S.N., Keeler, G., &, Angold, A., (2003). Relationships between poverty and psychopathology. A natural experiment. JAMA, 290, 2023-2029.
25. Costello, E.J., Erkanli, A., &, Angold, A., (2006). Is there an epidemic of child or adolescent depression? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1263-1271.
26. Crijnen, A.A.M., Achenbach, T.M., &, Verhulst, F.C., (1997). Comparisons of problems reported by parents of children in 12 cultures: Total problems, externalizing and internalizing. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1269-1277.
27. Cross-National Collaborative Group (1992). The changing rate of major depression. Journal of the American Medical Association, 268, 3098-3105.
28. Cuijpers, P., &, Smit, F., (2002). Excess mortality in depression: A meta-analysis of community studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 72, 227-236.
29. Dickens, W.T., &, Flynn, J.R., (2001). Heritability estimates versus large environmental effects: The IQ paradox resolved. Psychological Review, 108, 346-369.
30. Dowrick, C., &, Frances, A., (2013). Medicalising unhappiness: New classification of depression risks more patients being put on a drug treatment from which they will not benefit. British Medical Journal, 347, f7140.
31. Eckersley, R., (2006). Is modern Western culture a health hazard? International Journal of Epidemiology, 35, 252-258.
32. Ekblad, M., Gissler, M., Korkeila, J., &, Lehtonen, L., (2014). Trends and risk groups for smoking during pregnancy in Finland and other Nordic countries. European Journal of Public Health, 24, 544-551.
33. Elsabbagh, M., Divan, G., Koh, Y.J., Kim, Y.S., Kauchali, S., Marcín, C.,... &, Fombonne, E., (2012). Global prevalence of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Autism Research, 5, 160-179.
34. Estrada, F., Petterson, T., &, Shannon, D., (2012). Crime and criminology in Sweden. European Journal of Criminology, 9, 668-688.
35. Farrington, D.P., &, West, D.J., (1993). Criminal, penal and life histories of chronic offenders: Risk and protective factors and early identification. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 3, 492-523.
36. FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (2004). Background on suicidality associated with antidepressant drug treatment (memorandum). www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/04/briefing/4006B1-03-Background%20Memo%2001-05-04.htm.
37. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Crime in the United States (2009). Available from: http://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2009/data/table-01.html [last accessed 29 November 2014].
38. Ferri, E., Bynner, J., &, Wadsworth, M., (2003). Changing Britain, changing lives. London: Institute of Education.
39. Fichter, M.M., Quadflieg, N., Georgopoulou, E., Xepapadakos, F., &, Fthenakis, E.W., (2005). Time trends in eating disturbances in young Greek migrants. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 38, 310-322.
40. Fichter, M.M., Xepapadakos, F., Quadflieg, N., Georgopoulou, E., &, Fthenakis, W.E., (2004). A comparative study of psychopathology in Greek adolescents in Germany and in Greece in 1980 and 1998-18 years apart. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 254, 27-35.
41. Finkelhor, D,. (2013). Trends in bullying and peer victimization. Crimes against Children Research Center bulletin. Available from: http://cola.unh.edu/sites/cola.unh.edu/files/CV280-Bullying-Peer-Victimization-Bulletin-1-23-13-with-toby-edits.pdf [last accessed October 2014].
42. Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., Ormrod, R., &, Hamby, S.L., (2010). Trends in childhood violence and abuse exposure: Evidence from 2 national surveys. Archives of Paediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 164, 238-242.
43. Fleming, T.M., Clark, T., Denny, S., Bullen, P., Crengle, S., Peiris-John, R.,... &, Lucassen, M., (2014). Stability and change in the mental health of New Zealand secondary school students 2007-2012: Results from the national adolescent health surveys. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 48, 472-480.
44. Fombonne, E., (1998). Increased rates of psychosocial disorders in youth. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 248, 14-21.
45. Fombonne, E., (2009). Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders. Pediatric Research, 65, 591-598.
46. Ford, T., Hamilton, H., Meltzer, H., &, Goodman, R., (2007). Child mental health is everybody's business: The prevalence of contact with public sector services by type of disorder among British school children in a three-year period. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 12, 13-20.
47. Frans, E.M., Sandin, S., Reichenberg, A., Langstrom, N., Lichtenstein, P., McGrath, J.J., &, Hultman, C.M., (2013). Autism risk across generations. A population-based study of advancing grandpaternal and paternal age. JAMA Psychiatry, 70, 516-521.
48. Frederick, C.B., Snellman, K., &, Putnam, R.D., (2014). Increasing socioeconomic disparities in adolescent obesity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111, 1338-1342.
49. Fredriks, A.M., Van Buuren, S., Burgmeijer, R.J.F., Meulmeester, J., Beuker, R.J., Brugman, E.,... &, Wit, J.M., (2000). Continuing secular growth change in the Netherlands 1955-1997. Pediatric Research, 47, 316-323.
50. Getahun, D., Jacobsen, S.J., Fassett, M.J., Chen, W., Demissie, K., &, Rhoads, G.G., (2013). Recent trends in childhoood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Medical Association Pediatrics, 167, 282-288.
51. Golub, M.S., Collman, G.W., Foster, P.M.D., Kimmel, C.A., Rajpert-De Meyts, E., Reiter, E.O.,... &, Toppari, J., (2008). Public health implications of altered pubertal timing. Pediatrics, 2008, S218.
52. Goodman, A., Heiervang, E., Fleitlich-Bilyk, B., Alyari, A., Patel, V., Mullick, M.S.,... &, Goodman, R,. (2012). Cross-national differences in questionnaires do not necessarily reflect comparable differences in disorder prevalence. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47, 1321-1331.
53. Goodman, R., Iervolino, A.C., Collishaw, S., Pickles, A., &, Maughan, B., (2007). Seemingly minor changes to a questionnaire can make a big difference to mean scores: A cautionary tale. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 42, 322-327.
54. Gore Langton, E., Collishaw, S., Goodman, R., Pickles, A., &, Maughan, B., (2011). An emerging income differential for adolescent emotional problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 1081-1088.
55. Gottfredson, M., &, Hirschi, T., (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
56. Green, H., McGinnity, A., Meltzer, H., Ford, T., &, Goodman, R., (2005). Mental health of children and young people in Great Britain, 2004. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
57. Gunnell, D., Middleton, N., &, Frankel, S., (2000). Method availability and the prevention of suicide: A re-analysis of secular trends in England and Wales 1950-1975. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 35, 437-443.
58. Hagell, A., (2012). Changing adolescence: Social trends and mental health. Bristol: Policy Press.
59. Hawton, K., Hall, S., Simkin, S., Bale, L., Bond, A., Codd, S., &, Stewart, A., (2003). Deliberate self-harm in adolescents: A study of characteristics and trends in Oxford, 1990-2000. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 1191-1198.
60. Hawton, K., Saunders, K.E.A., &, O'Connor, R.O., (2012). Self-harm and suicide in adolescents. The Lancet, 379, 2373-2382.
61. Hawton, K., Simkin, S., Deeks, J., Cooper, J., Johnston, A., Waters, K.,... &, Simpson, K., (2004). UK legislation on analgesic packs: Before and after study of long term effect on poisonings. British Medical Journal, 329, 1076.
62. Heiervang, E., Goodman, A., &, Goodman, R., (2008). The Nordic advantage in child mental health: Separating health differences from reporting style in a crosscultural comparison of psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 678-685.
63. Hirschi, T., &, Gottfredson, M., (1983). Age and the explanation of crime. The American Journal of Sociology, 89, 552-584.
64. Hölling, H., Schlack, R., Petermann, F., Ravens-Sieberer, U., Mauz, E., & KiGGS Study Group. (2014). Psychopathological problems and psychosocial impairment in children and adolescents aged 3-17 years in the German population: prevalence and time trends at two measurement points (2003-2006 and 2009-2012). Results of the KiGGS study: First follow-up (KiGGS Wave 1). Bundesgesundheitsblatt, 57, 807-819.
65. Home Office (2008). Young people and crime: Findings from the 2006 Offending, Crime and Justice Survey. Colchester: Home Office Statistical Bulletin.
66. Honda, H., Simizu, Y., &, Rutter, M., (2005). No effect of MMR withdrawal on the incidence of autism: A total population study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 572-579.
67. Hsia, Y., &, Maclennan, K., (2009). Rise in psychotropic drug prescribing in children and adolescents during 1992-2001: A population-based study in the UK. European Journal of Epidemiology, 24, 211-216.
68. Idring, S., Raj, D., Dal, H., Dalman, C., Sturm, H., Zander, E.,... &, Magnusson, C., (2012). Autism spectrum disorders in the Stockholm Youth Cohort: design, prevalence, and validity. PLoS ONE, 7, e41280.
69. Ilola, A.M., &, Sourander, A., (2013). Bullying and victimization among 8-year old children: A 16-year population-based time-trend study. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 67, 171-176.
70. Institute of Medicine (2009). Preventing mental, emotional and behavioral disorders among young people: progress and possibilities. Washington DC: National Academies Press.
71. Jaffee, S.R., Strait, L.B., &, Odgers, C.L., (2012). From correlates to causes: Can quasi-experimental studies and statistical innovations bring us closer to identifying the causes of antisocial behaviour? Psychological Bulletin, 138, 272-295.
72. Jokela, M., Ferrie, J., &, Kivimaki, M., (2009). Childhood problem behaviors and death by midlife: The British National Child Development Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 19-24.
73. Jones, L.M., Mitchell, K.J., &, Finkelhor, D., (2012). Trends in youth internet victimization: Findings from three youth internet safety surveys 2000-2010. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50, 179-186.
74. Kessler, R.C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K.R., &, Walters, E.E., (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-at-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593-602.
75. Keyes, K.M., Nicholson, R., Kinley, J., Raposo, S, Stein, M.B., Goldner, E.M., &, Sareen, J,. (2014). Age, period, and cohort effects in psychological distress in the United States and Canada. American Journal of Epidemiology, 179, 1216-1227.
76. Kieling, C., Baker-Henningham, H., Belfer, M., Conti, G., Ertem, I., Omigbodun, O.,... &, Rahman, A., (2011). Child and adolescent mental health worldwide: Evidence for action. Lancet, 378, 1515-1525.
77. Kim-Cohen, J., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T.E., Harrington, H., Milne, B.J., &, Poulton, R., (2003). Prior juvenile diagnoses in adults with mental disorder: Developmental follow-back of a prospective-longitudinal cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 709-717.
78. King, G., Murray, C.J.L., Salomon, J.A., &, Tandon, A., (2004). Enhancing the validity and cross-cultural comparability of measurement in survey research. American Political Science Review, 98, 191-207.
79. Kosidou, K., Magnusson, C., Mittendorfer-Rutz, E., Hallqvist, J., Hellner Gumpert, C., Idrizbegovic, S.,... &, Dalman, C., (2010). Recent trends in levels of self-reported anxiety, mental health service use and suicidal behaviour in Stockholm. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 22, 47-55.
80. Kulage, K.M., Smaldone, A.M., &, Cohn, E.G.,. (2014). How will DSM-5 affect autism diagnosis? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 1918-1932.
81. Lampi, K.M., Lehtonen, L., Lien Tran, P., Suominen, A., Lehti, V., Banerjee, P.N.,... &, Sourander, A., (2012). Risk of autism spectrum disorders in low birth weight and small for gestational age infants. Journal of Pediatrics, 161, 830-836.
82. Le, M.T.H., Nguyen, H.T., Tran, T.D., &, Fisher, J.R., (2012). Experience of low mood and suicidal behaviors among adolescents in Vietnam: findings from two national population-based surveys. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51, 339-348.
83. Lin, H., &, Wang, Y., (2007). Child behavioural problems: Comparative follow-up study two decades-socio-cultural comments. World Cultural Psychiatry Research Review, Oct 2007, 2, 128-132.
84. Livingstone, S., &, Smith, P.K., (2014). Annual research review: Harms experienced by child users of online and mobile technologies: the nature, prevalence and management of sexual and aggressive risks in the digital age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 635-654.
85. Lotter, V., (1966). Epidemiology of autistic conditions in young children. Social Psychiatry, 1, 124-135.
86. Lund, C., Breen, A., Flisher, A.J., Kakuma, R., Corrigal, J., Joska, J.A.,... &, Patel, V,. (2010). Poverty and common mental disorders in low income countries: A systematic review. Social Science and Medicine, 71, 517-528.
87. Luntamo, T., Sourander, A., Santalahti, P., Aromaa, M., &, Helenius, H., (2012). Prevalence changes of pain, sleep problems and fatigue among 8-year old children: Years 1989, 1999, and 2005. Journal of Paediatric Psychology, 37, 307-318.
88. Ma, J., Lee, K.V., &, Stafford, R.S., (2005). Depression treatment during outpatient visits by US children and adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 37, 434-442.
89. Man, K.K.C., Ip, P., Hsia, Y., Chan, E.W., Chui, C.S.L., Lam, M.P.,... &, Wong, I.C., (2014). ADHD drug prescribing trend is increasing among children and adolescents in Hong Kong. Journal of Attention Disorders. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1177/1087054714536047.
90. Marmot, M., (2010). Fair society, healthy lives: The marmot review. Strategic review of health inequalities in England post-2010. London: The Marmot Review.
91. Matijasevich, A., Murray, E., Stein, A., Anselmi, L., Menezes, A.M., Santos, I.S.,... &, Victora, C.G., (2014). Increase in child behaviour problems among urban Brazilian four-year-olds: 1993 and 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohorts. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 1125-1134.
92. Matricciani, L., Olds, T., &, Petkov, J., (2012). In search of lost sleep: secular trends in the sleep time of school-aged children and adolescents. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 16, 203-211.
93. Maughan, B., &, Collishaw, S,. (2015). Development and psychopathology: A lifecourse perspective. In, A. Thapar, D. Pine, J.F. Leckman, S. Scott, M.J. Snowling, &, E. Taylor, (Eds.), Rutter's child and adolescent psychiatry (6 th edn), Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
94. Maughan, B., Collishaw, S., Meltzer, H., &, Goodman, R., (2008). Recent trends in UK child and adolescent mental health. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 43, 305-310.
95. Maughan, B., Collishaw, S., &, Stringaris, A., (2013). Depression in childhood and adolescence. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 22, 35-40.
96. Maughan, B., Stafford, M., Shah, I., &, Kuh, D., (2014). Adolescent conduct problems and premature mortality: Follow-up to age 65 years in a national birth cohort. Psychological Medicine, 44, 1077-1086.
97. McArdle, P., Prosser, J., Dickinson, H., &, Kolvin, I., (2003). Secular trends in the mental health of primary school children. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, 20, 56-58.
98. McCarthy, S., Wilton, L., Murray, M.L., Hodgkins, P., Asherson, P., &, Wong, I.C.K., (2012). The epidemiology of pharmacologically treated attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children, adolescents and adults in UK primary care. BMC Pediatric, 12, 1-11.
99. McKeown, R.E., Cuffe, S.P., &, Schulz, R.M., (2006). US suicide rates by age group, 1970-2002: An examination of recent trends. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 1744-1751.
100. Meltzer, H., Gatward, R., Goodman, R., &, Ford, T., (2000). The mental health of children and adolescents in Great Britain: summary report. London: The Stationary Office.
101. Mittendorfer-Rutz, E., &, Wasserman, D., (2004). Trends in adolescent suicide mortality in the WHO European Region 2004. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 13, 321-331.
102. Moffitt, T.E., (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674-701.
103. Mohler, B., &, Earls, F., (2001). Trends in adolescent suicide: Misclassification bias? American Journal of Public Health, 91, 150-153.
104. Molcho, M., Craig, W., Due, P., Pickett, W., Harel-Fisch, Y., Overpeck, M,., & HBSC Bullying Writing Group. (2009). Cross-national time trends in bullying behaviour 1994-2006: Findings from Europe and North America. International Journal of Public Health, 54, S225-S234.
105. Murray, J., de Castro Cerqueira, DR,., &, Kahn, T., (2013). Crime and violence in Brazil: Systematic review of time trends, prevalence rates and risk factors. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18, 471-483.
106. Murray, C.J., Vos, T., Lozano, R., Naghavi, M., Flaxman, A.D., Michaud, C.,... &, Memish, Z.A., (2012). Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990-2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2010. Lancet, 380, 2197-2223.
107. Office for National Statistics (2014). Crime in England and Wales, Year ending September 2013. Statistical Bulletin. Available from: http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778-349849.pdf [last accessed 29 November 2014].
108. Olfson, M., Blanco, C., Wang, S., Laje, G., &, Correll, C.U., (2014). National trends in the mental health care of children, adolescents, and adults by office-based physicians. JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 81-90.
109. Olfson, M., Gameroff, M.J., Marcus, S.C., &, Jensen, P.S., (2003). National trends in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1071-1077.
110. Ortiz, I., Daniels, L.M., &, Engilbertsdõttir, S., (2012). Child poverty and inequality. New perspectives and challenges. New York: United Nations Children's Fund.
111. Pallesen, S., Hetland, J., Sivertsen, B., Samdal, O., Torsheim, T., &, Nordhus, I.H., (2008). Time trends in sleep-onset difficulties among Norwegian adolescents: 1983-2005. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 36, 889-895.
112. Pinker, S., (2011). The better angels of our nature: why violence has declined. London: Penguin Books.
113. Polanczyk, G.V., Willcutt, E.G., Salum, G.A., Kieling, C, &, Rohde, L.A,. (2014). ADHD prevalence estimates across three decades: An updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis. International Journal of Epidemiology, 43, 434-442.
114. Pottegård, A., Zoëga, H., Hallas, J., &, Damkier, P,. (2014). Use of SSRIs among Danish children: A nationwide study. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 23, 1211-1218.
115. Potter, R., Mars, B., Eyre, O., Legge, S., Ford, T., Sellers, R.,... &, Thapar, A.K., (2012). Missed opportunities: Mental disorder in children of parents with depression. British Journal of General Practice, 62, e487-e493.
116. Raj, D., Lee, B.K., Dalman, C., Golding, J., Lewis, G., &, Magnusson, C,. (2013). Parental depression, maternal antidepressant use during pregnancy, and risk of autism spectrum disorders: Population case-control study. British Medical Journal, 346, f2059.
117. Reiss, A.J., &, Farrington, D.P., (1991). Advancing knowledge about co-offending: Results from a prospective longitudinal survey of London males. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 82, 360-395.
118. Rigby, K., &, Smith, P.K., (2011). Is school bullying really on the rise? Social Psychology of Education, 14, 441-455.
119. Robertson, C., &, Boyle, P., (1998). Age-period-cohort analysis of chronic disease rates. I: modelling approach. Statistics in Medicine, 17, 1305-1323.
120. Robins, L.N., &, Regier, D.A., (1991). Psychiatric disorders in America: The epidemiologic catchment area study. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
121. Robinson, W.S., (1950). Ecological correlations and the behavior of individuals. American Sociological Review, 15, 351-357.
122. Russell, G., Kelly, S., &, Golding, J., (2010). A qualitative analysis of lay beliefs about the aetiology and prevalence of autistic spectrum disorders. Child Care Health and Development, 36, 431-436.
123. Russell, G., Rodgers, L.R., Ukoumunne, O.C., &, Ford, T., (2014). Prevalence of parent-reported ASD and ADHD in the UK: findings from the Millennium Cohort Study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 1-10.
124. Rutter, M., (2005). Incidence of autism spectrum disorders: Changes over time and their meaning. Acta Paediatrica, 94, 2-15.
125. Rutter, M., (2013). Annual research review: Resilience-clinical implications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 474-487.
126. Rutter, M., &, Smith, D., (1995). Psychosocial disorders in young people: time trends and their causes. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
127. Rutter, M., &, Solantaus, T., (2014). Translation gone awry: Differences between common sense and science. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 23, 247-255.
128. Salomon, J.A., Tandon, A., &, Murray, C.J.L., (2004). Comparability of self rated health: Cross sectional multi-country survey using anchoring vignettes. British Medical Journal, 328, 258.
129. Santalahti, P., Aromaa, M., Sourander, A., Helenius, H., &, Piha, J., (2005). Have there been changes in children's psychosomatic symptoms? A 10-year comparison from Finland. Pediatrics, 115, e434-e442.
130. Santalahti, P., Sourander, A., Aromaa, M., Helenius, H., Ikäheimo, K., &, Piha, J., (2008). Victimization and bullying among 8-year-old children. A 10-year comparison of rates. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 463-472.
131. Scheffler, R.M., Hinshaw, S.P., Modrek, S., &, Levine, P., (2007). The global market for ADHD medications. Health Affairs, 26, 450-457.
132. Schepman, K., Collishaw, S., Gardner, F., Maughan, B., Scott, J., &, Pickles, A., (2011). Do changes in parent mental health explain trends in youth emotional problems? Social Science and Medicine, 73, 293-300.
133. Sellers, R., Maughan, B., Pickles, A., Thapar, A., &, Collishaw, S,. (2015). Trends in parent- and teacher-rated emotional, conduct and ADHD problems and their impact in pre-pubertal children in Great Britain: 1999-2008. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56, 49-57.
134. Shadish, W.R., Cook, T.D., &, Campbell, D.T., (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
135. Sigfusdottir, I.D., Asgeirsdottir, B.B., Sigurdsson, J.F., &, Gudjonsson, G.H., (2008). Trends in depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms and visits to healthcare specialists: A national study among Icelandic adolescents. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 36, 361-368.
136. Silventoinen, K., Sammalisto, S., Perola, M., Boomsma, D.I., Cornes, B.K., Davis, C.,... &, Kaprio, J., (2003). Heritability of adult body height: A comparative study of twin studies in eight countries. Twin Research, 6, 399-408.
137. Smith, R.P., Larkin, G.L., &, Southwick, S.M., (2008). Trends in US emergency department visits for anxiety-related mental health conditions, 1992-2001. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69, 286-294.
138. Sorensen, K., Mouritsen, A., Aksglaede, L., Hagen, C.P., Mogensen, S.S., &, Juul, A., (2012). Recent secular trends in pubertal timing: Implications for evaluation and diagnosis of precocious puberty. Hormone Research in Paediatrics, 77, 137-145.
139. Sourander, A., Koskelainen, M., Niemelä, S., Rihko, M., Ristkari, T., &, Lindroos, J., (2012). Changes in adolescents mental health and use of alcohol and tobacco: A 10-year time-trend study of Finnish adolescents. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 21, 665-671.
140. Sourander, A., Niemelä, S., Santalahti, P., Helenius, H., &, Piha, J., (2008). Changes in psychiatric problems and service use among 8-year old children: A 16-year population-based time-trend study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 317-327.
141. Sourander, A., Santalahti, P., Haavisto, A., Piha, J., Ikäheimo, K., &, Helenius, H., (2004). Have there been changes in children's psychiatric symptoms and mental health service use? A ten-year comparison from Finland. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 1134-1145.
142. St Clair, D., Xu, M., Wang, P., Yu, Y., Fang, Y., Zhang, F.,... &, He, L., (2005). Rates of adult schizophrenia following prenatal exposure to the Chinese famine of 1959-1961. Journal of the American Medical Association, 294, 557-562.
143. Stephenson, C.P., Karanges, E., &, McGregor, I.S., (2013). Trends in the utilisation of psychotropic medications in Australia from 2000 to 2011. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 47, 74-87.
144. Stuckler, D., Basu, S., Suhrcke, M., Coutts, A., &, McKee, M., (2009). The public health effect of economic crises and alternative policy responses in Europe: An empirical analysis. Lancet, 374, 315-323.
145. Susser, E., Hoek, H.W., &, Brown, A., (1998). Neurodevelopmental disorders after prenatal famine. The story of the Dutch Famine Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 147, 213-216.
146. Sweeting, H., West, P., Young, R., &, Der, G., (2010). Can we explain increases in young people's psychological distress over time? Social Science and Medicine, 71, 1819-1830.
147. Sweeting, H., Young, R., &, West, P., (2009). GHQ increases among Scottish 15 year olds 1987-2006. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 44, 579-586.
148. Taylor, B., Jick, H., &, MacLaughlin, D., (2013). Prevalence and incidence rates of autism in the UK: Time trend from 2004-2010 in children aged 8 years. BMJ Open, 3, e003219.
149. Thapar, A., Collishaw, S., Pine, D.S., &, Thapar, A.K., (2012). Depression in adolescence. The Lancet, 379, 1056-1067.
150. Thapar, A., &, Rutter, M., (2009). Do prenatal risk factors cause psychiatric disorder? Be wary of causal claims. British Journal of Psychiatry, 195, 100-101.
151. Thapar, A., &, Rutter, M,. (2015). Using natural experiments and animal models to study causal hypotheses in relation to child mental health problems. In, A. Thapar, D. Pine, J.F. Leckman, S. Scott, M.J. Snowling, &, E. Taylor, (Eds.), Rutter's child and adolescent psychiatry (6 th edn), Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
152. Tick, N.T., van der Ende, M.S., Koot, H.S., &, Verhulst, F.C., (2007). 14-year changes in emotional and behavioral problems of very young Dutch children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1333-1340.
153. Tick, N.T., van der Ende, J., &, Verhulst, F.C., (2007). Twenty-year trends in emotional and behavioural problems in Dutch children in a changing society. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 116, 473-482.
154. Tick, N.T., van der Ende, J., &, Verhulst, F.C., (2008). Ten-year trends in self-reported emotional and behavioural problems of Dutch adolescents. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 43, 349-355.
155. Toh, S., (2006). Trends in ADHD and stimulant use among children, 1993-2003. Psychiatric Services, 57, 1091.
156. Torikka, A., Kaltiala-Heino, R., Rimpelä, A., Marttunen, M., Luukkaala, T., &, Rimpelä, M., (2014). Self-reported depre-ssion is increasing among socio-economically disadvantaged adolescents-repeated cross-sectional surveys from Finland from 2000 to 2011. BMC Public Health, 14, 408.
157. Twenge, J.M., (2011). Generational differences in mental health: Are children and adolescents suffering more, or less? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81, 469-472.
158. UK Statistics Authority. (2014). Assessment of compliance with the Code of Practice for Official Statistics. Statistics on crime in England and Wales (produced by the Office for National Statistics). Assessment Report 268.
159. United Nations Children's Fund (2013). Towards an AIDS-free generation: Children and AIDS sixth stock-taking report. UNICEF.
160. United Nations Economic and Social Council. (2014). World Crime Trends and emerging issues and responses in the field of crime prevention and criminal justice. Available from: http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/statistics/crime/ECN.1520145-EN.pdf [last accessed October 2014].
161. Van Dijk, J., Tseloni, A., &, Farrell, G., (2012). The international crime drop: New directions in research. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
162. Van Dijk, J.J.M., van Kesteren, J.N., &, Smit, P., (2008). Criminal victimisation in International Perspective, key findings from the 2004-2005 ICVS and EU ICS. The Hague: Boom Legal Publishers.
163. Värnik, A., Kõlves, K., Allik, J., Arensman, E., Aromaa, E., van Audenhove, C.,... &, Hegerl, U., (2009). Gender issues in suicide rates, trends and methods among youths aged 15-24 in 15 European countries. Journal of Affective Disorders, 113, 216-226.
164. von Soest, T., &, Wichstrøm, L., (2014). Secular trends in depressive symptoms among Norwegian adolescents from 1992 to 2010. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 403-415.
165. Wångby, M., Magnusson, D., &, Stattin, H., (2005). Time trends in the adjustment of Swedish Teenage Girls: A 26-year comparison of 15-year-olds. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 46, 145-156.
166. West, P., &, Sweeting, H., (2003). Fifteen, female and stressed: Changing patterns of psychological distress over time. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 399-411.
167. Whittington, C.J., Kendall, T., Fonagy, P., Cottrell, D., Cotgrove, A., &, Boddington, E., (2004). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in childhood depression: Systematic review of published versus unpublished data. Lancet, 363, 1341-1345.
168. Wilkinson, R., &, Pickett, K., (2010). The spirit level. London: Penguin.
169. Williams, R.L., (2013). Overview of the Flynn effect. Intelligence, 41, 753-764.
170. Windfuhr, K., While, D., Hunt, I., Turnbull, P., Lowe, R., Burns, J.,... &, Kapur, N., (2008). Suicide in juveniles and adolescents in the United Kingdom. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 1155-1165.
171. Wong, I.C.K., Murray, M.L., Novak-Camilleri, D., &, Stephens, P., (2004). Increased prescribing trends of paediatric psychotropic medications. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 89, 1131-1132.
172. Yoshikawa, H., Aber, J.L., &, Beardslee, W., (2012). The effects of poverty on the mental, emotional, and behavioral health of children and youth: implications for prevention. American Psychologist, 67, 272-284.