The evolution of cancer surgery and future perspectives

Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 115-124

  Wyld, Lynda ^a   Audisio, Riccardo A ^b   Poston, Graeme J ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL AINTREE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADJUVANT THERAPY; BREAST CANCER; BREAST RECONSTRUCTION; CANCER SCREENING; CANCER SURGERY; COLORECTAL CANCER; CYSTECTOMY; ENDOPROSTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION; ESOPHAGUS CANCER; GYNECOLOGIC CANCER; HEALTH CARE COST; HEALTH CARE QUALITY; HEALTH CARE SYSTEM; HUMAN; INTERVENTIONAL RADIOLOGY; LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY; LIVER RESECTION; LUNG CANCER; MALIGNANT NEOPLASTIC DISEASE; MEDICAL AUDIT; METHODOLOGY; MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY; NATURAL ORIFICE SPECIMEN EXTRACTION; NATURAL ORIFICE TRANSLUMINAL ENDOSCOPIC SURGERY; PANCREAS CANCER; PLASTIC SURGERY; POSTOPERATIVE CARE; PROSTATECTOMY; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; RISK REDUCTION; ROBOT ASSISTED LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY; SINGLE INCISION LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY; STOMACH CANCER; SURGICAL EQUIPMENT; TRANSANAL ENDOSCOPIC MICROSURGERY; BREAST NEOPLASMS; COLORECTAL NEOPLASMS; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; FEMALE; MULTIMODALITY CANCER THERAPY; NEOPLASMS; ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT; PATIENT CARE; PROCEDURES; TRENDS;

BREAST NEOPLASMS; COLORECTAL NEOPLASMS; COMBINED MODALITY THERAPY; EARLY DETECTION OF CANCER; FEMALE; HUMANS; MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGICAL PROCEDURES; NEOPLASMS; PATIENT CARE TEAM; SURGICAL PROCEDURES, OPERATIVE;

EID: 84923180511     PISSN: 17594774     EISSN: 17594782     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrclinonc.2014.191     Document Type: Review

References (139)

1. Cancer Research UK. Cancer statistics; key facts: all cancers combined [online], http://publications.cancerresearchuk.org/downloads/Product/CS-KF-ALLCANCERS.pdf (2014).
2. Philip, J. F. Results of treatment of breast cancer at Aberdeen Royal Infirmary 1940-1955. Br. Med. J. 1, 323-331 (1967).
3. Floyd, C. E., Stirling, C. T. & Cohn, I. Jr. Cancer of the colon, rectum and anus: review of 1, 687 cases. Ann. Surg. 163, 829-837 (1966).
4. Clarke, D. N., Jones, P. F. & Needham, C. D. Outcome in colorectal carcinoma: seven-year study of a population. Br. Med. J. 280, 431-435 (1980).
5. Brachet Contul, R. et al. Laparoscopic total mesorectal excision for extraperitoneal rectal cancer: long-term results of a 18-year singlecentre experience. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 18, 796-807 (2014).
6. Langreth, R. & Waldholz, M. New era of personalized medicine: targeting drugs for each unique genetic profile. Oncologist 4, 426-427 (1999).
7. Breasted, J. H. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus Vol. 3, 405 (The University of Chicago Press, 1930).
8. Thariat, J., Hannoun-Levi, J. M., Sun Myint, A., Vuong, T. & Gerard, J. P. Past, present, and future of radiotherapy for the benefit of patients. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 10, 52-60 (2013).
9. Peeters, F., Verbeeten, B. Jr & Venema, H. W. Nobel Prize for medicine and physiology 1979 for A. M. Cormack and G. N. Hounsfield [Dutch]. Ned. Tijdschr. Geneeskd 123, 2192-2193 (1979).
10. Halsted, W. S. The results of operations for the cure of cancer of the breast performed at the John's Hopkins Hospital from June 1889, to January, 1894. Ann. Surg. 20, 497-555 (1894).
11. Hamashima, C. et al. The Japanese guidelines for gastric cancer screening. Jpn J. Clin. Oncol. 38, 259-267 (2008).
12. Lane, J. A. et al. Active monitoring, radical prostatectomy, or radiotherapy for localised prostate cancer: study design and diagnostic and baseline results of the ProtecT randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 15, 1109-1118 (2014).
13. Steele, R. J. et al. Clinical outcomes using a faecal immunochemical test for haemoglobin as a first-line test in a national programme constrained by colonoscopy capacity. United European Gastroenterol. J. 1, 198-205 (2013).
14. Shapiro, S. Periodic screening for breast cancer: the HIP Randomized Controlled Trial. Health Insurance Plan. J. Natl Cancer Inst. Monogr. 22, 27-30 (1997).
15. Nystrom, L. et al. Long-term effects of mammography screening: updated overview of the Swedish randomised trials. Lancet 359, 909-919 (2002).
16. Tabar, L. et al. Mammography service screening and mortality in breast cancer patients: 20-year follow-up before and after introduction of screening. Lancet 361, 1405-1410 (2003).
17. Alexander, F. E. et al. 14 years of follow-up from the Edinburgh randomised trial of breast-cancer screening. Lancet 353, 1903-1908 (1999).
18. Marmot, M. G. et al. The benefits and harms of breast cancer screening: an independent review. Br. J. Cancer 108, 2205-2240 (2013).
19. Jørgensen, K. J. & Gøtzsche, P. C. Overdiagnosis in publicly organised mammography screening programmes: systematic review of incidence trends. BMJ 339, b2587 (2009).
20. The NHS Information Centre. National mastectomy and breast reconstruction audit, fourth annual report 2011 [online], http://www.hscic.gov.uk/catalogue/PUB02731/clin-audi-supp-prog-mast-brea-reco-2011-rep1.pdf (2011).
21. Association of Breast Surgeons and NHS Breast Screening Programme. An audit of screen detected breast cancers for the year of screening April 2011 to March 2012 [online], http://www.cancerscreening.nhs.uk/breastscreen/publications/baso2011-2012.pdf (2013).
22. ISRCTN Register. Surgery versus Active Monitoring for Low Risk Ductal Carcinoma in Situ (DCIS) [online], http://controlled-trials.com/ISRCTN27544579 (2014).
23. Brenner, H., Stock, C. & Hoffmeister, M. Effect of screening sigmoidoscopy and screening colonoscopy on colorectal cancer incidence and mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials and observational studies. BMJ 348, g2467 (2014).
24. Hewitson, P., Glasziou, P., Irwig, L., Towler, B. & Watson, E. Screening for colorectal cancer using the faecal occult blood test, Hemoccult. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 1. Art. No.: CD001216 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001216. pub2 (2007).
25. Sajid, M. S. et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of published trials comparing the effectiveness of transanal endoscopic microsurgery and radical resection in the management of early rectal cancer. Colorectal Dis. 16, 2-14 (2014).
26. Valsdottir, E. B., Yarandi, S. S., Marks, J. H. & Marks, G. J. Quality of life and fecal incontinence after transanal endoscopic microsurgery for benign and malignant rectal lesions. Surg. Endosc. 28, 193-202 (2014).
27. Schwenk, W., Haase, O., Neudecker, J. & Muller, J. M. Short term benefits for laparoscopic colorectal resection. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD003145 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003145.pub2 (2005).
28. Lee, A. J. et al. BOADICEA breast cancer risk prediction model: updates to cancer incidences, tumour pathology and web interface. Br. J. Cancer 110, 535-545 (2014).
29. Vasen, H. F., Watson, P., Mecklin, J. P. & Lynch, H. T. New clinical criteria for hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC, Lynch syndrome) proposed by the International Collaborative group on HNPCC. Gastroenterology 116, 1453-1456 (1999).
30. Apostolou, P. & Fostira, F. Hereditary breast cancer: the era of new susceptibility genes. Biomed. Res. Int. 2013, 747318 (2013).
31. Evans, D. G. et al. Risk reducing mastectomy: outcomes in 10 European centres. J. Med. Genet. 46, 254-258 (2009).
32. Ingham, S. L. et al. Risk-reducing surgery increases survival in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers unaffected at time of family referral. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 142, 611-618 (2013).
33. Hooker, G. W. et al. Long-term satisfaction and quality of life following risk reducing surgery in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers. Hered. Cancer Clin. Pract. 12, 9 (2014).
34. Desmedt, C., Voet, T., Sotiriou, C. & Campbell, P. J. Next-generation sequencing in breast cancer: first take home messages. Curr. Opin. Oncol. 24, 597-604 (2012).
35. Michailidou, K. et al. Large-scale genotyping identifies 41 new loci associated with breast cancer risk. Nat. Genet. 45, 353-361 (2013).
36. Tudyka, V. N. & Clark, S. K. Surgical treatment in familial adenomatous polyposis. Ann. Gastroenterol. 25, 201-206 (2012).
37. Mastoraki, A. et al. Prophylactic total gastrectomy for hereditary diffuse gastric cancer. Review of the literature. Surg. Oncol. 20, e223-e226 (2011).
38. Hyung, W. J. et al. Changes in treatment outcomes of gastric cancer surgery over 45 years at a single institution. Yonsei Med. J. 49, 409-415 (2008).
39. Msika, S., Benhamiche, A. M., Tazi, M. A., Rat, P. & Faivre, J. Improvement of operative mortality after curative resection for gastric cancer: population-based study. World J. Surg. 24, 1137-1142 (2000).
40. Osaki, T. et al. Results of surgical treatment for primary lung cancer; time trends of survival and clinicopathologic features [Japanese]. J. UOEH 23, 277-283 (2001).
41. Evans, M. D. et al. A comparative study of colorectal surgical outcome in a national audit separated by 15 years. Colorectal Dis. 15, 608-612 (2013).
42. Hatzinger, M. et al. Hans Christian Jacobaeus: inventor of human laparoscopy and thoracoscopy. J. Endourol. 20, 848-850 (2006).
43. Spaner, S. J. & Warnock, G. L. A brief history of endoscopy, laparoscopy, and laparoscopic surger y. J. Laparoendosc. Adv. Surg. Tech. A 7, 369-373 (1997).
44. Murphy, D., Challacombe, B., Khan, M. S. & Dasgupta, P. Robotic technology in urology. Postgrad. Med. J. 82, 743-747 (2006).
45. Shaw, J. P. et al. Video-assisted thoracoscopic lobectomy: state of the art and future directions. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 85, S705-S709 (2008).
46. Jayne, D. G. et al. Five-year follow-up of the Medical Research Council CLASICC trial of laparoscopically assisted versus open surgery for colorectal cancer. Br. J. Surg. 97, 1638-1645 (2010).
47. Murray, A. et al. Clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of laparoscopic surgery for colorectal cancer: systematic reviews and economic evaluation. Health Technol. Assess. 10, 1-141, iii-iv (2006).
48. Lee, W. J., Wang, W., Chen, T. C., Chen, J. C. & Ser, K. H. Totally laparoscopic radical BII gastrectomy for the treatment of gastric cancer: a comparison with open surgery. Surg. Laparosc. Endosc. Percutan. Tech. 18, 369-374 (2008).
49. Francescutti, V., Choy, I., Biertho, L., Goldsmith, C. H. & Anvari, M. Gastrectomy and esophagogastrectomy for proximal and distal gastric lesions: a comparison of open and laparoscopic procedures. Surg. Innov. 16, 134-139 (2009).
50. Moran, P. S. et al. Robot-assisted radical prostatectomy compared with open and laparoscopic approaches: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Urol. 20, 312-321 (2013).
51. Woods, M. E., Wiklund, P. & Castle, E. P. Robotassisted radical cystectomy: recent advances and review of the literature. Curr. Opin. Urol. 20, 125-129 (2010).
52. Gkegkes, I. D. & Iavazzo, C. Single incision laparoscopic hepatectomy: a systematic review. J. Minim. Access Surg. 10, 107-112 (2014).
53. Lee, S. H. et al. Minimally invasive RAMPS in well-selected left-sided pancreatic cancer within Yonsei criteria: long-term (>median 3 years) oncologic outcomes. Surg. Endosc. 28, 2848-2855 (2014).
54. Fisher, S. B. & Kooby, D. A. Laparoscopic pancreatectomy for malignancy. J. Surg. Oncol. 107, 39-50 (2013).
55. Nguyen, N. T. et al. Laparoscopic surgery is associated with a lower incidence of venous thromboembolism compared with open surgery. Ann. Surg. 246, 1021-1027 (2007).
56. Narita, S. et al. Comparison of surgical stress in patients undergoing open versus laparoscopic radical prostatectomy by measuring perioperative serum cytokine levels. J. Laparoendosc. Adv. Surg. Tech. A 23, 33-37 (2013).
57. Kim, Y. W. et al. Improved quality of life outcomes after laparoscopy-assisted distal gastrectomy for early gastric cancer: results of a prospective randomized clinical trial. Ann. Surg. 248, 721-727 (2008).
58. Alimoglu, O., Atak, I., Orhun, K. & Eren, T. Robotassisted laparoscopic colorectal surgery. Minerva Chir. 68, 471-478 (2013).
59. Tyson, M. D. & Humphreys, M. R. Urological applications of natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES). Nat. Rev. Urol. 11, 324-332 (2014).
60. Kim, S. J., Choi, B. J. & Lee, S. C. Overview of single-port laparoscopic surgery for colorectal cancers: past, present, and the future. World J. Gastroenterol. 20, 997-1004 (2014).
61. Mirnezami, A. H. et al. Robotic colorectal surgery: hype or new hope? A systematic review of robotics in colorectal surgery. Colorectal Dis. 12, 1084-1093 (2010).
62. Trastulli, S. et al. Robotic resection compared with laparoscopic rectal resection for cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis of short-term outcome. Colorectal Dis. 14, e134-e156 (2012).
63. Winslet, M. C., Mohsen, Y. M., Powell, J., Allum, W. H. & Fielding, J. W. The influence of age on the surgical management of carcinoma of the stomach. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 22, 220-224 (1996).
64. Coniglio, A. et al. Surgical treatment for gastric carcinoma in the elderly. J. Surg. Oncol. 88, 201-205 (2004).
65. Wexner, S. D. et al. The current status of robotic pelvic surgery: results of a multinational interdisciplinary consensus conference. Surg. Endosc. 23, 438-443 (2009).
66. Raga, F., Sanz-Cortes, M., Bonilla, F., Casan, E. M. & Bonilla-Musoles, F. Reducing blood loss at myomectomy with use of a gelatin-thrombin matrix hemostatic sealant. Fertil. Steril. 92, 356-360 (2009).
67. Ding, H. et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of application of fibrin sealant after liver resection. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 29, 387-394 (2013).
68. Kearns, S. R., Connolly, E. M., McNally, S., McNamara, D. A. & Deasy, J. Randomized clinical trial of diathermy versus scalpel incision in elective midline laparotomy. Br. J. Surg. 88, 41-44 (2001).
69. Rodd, C. D., Velchuru, V. R., Holly-Archer, F., Clark, A. & Pereira, J. H. Randomized clinical trial comparing two mastectomy techniques. World J. Surg. 31, 1164-1168 (2007).
70. Macario, A., Dexter, F., Sypal, J., Cosgriff, N. & Heniford, B. T. Operative time and other outcomes of the electrothermal bipolar vessel sealing system (LigaSure) versus other methods for surgical hemostasis: a meta-analysis. Surg. Innov. 15, 284-291 (2008).
71. Adamina, M., Champagne, B. J., Hoffman, L., Ermlich, M. B. & Delaney, C. P. Randomized clinical trial comparing the cost and effectiveness of bipolar vessel sealers versus clips and vascular staplers for laparoscopic colorectal resection. Br. J. Surg. 98, 1703-1712 (2011).
72. Havenga, K. et al. Improved survival and local control after total mesorectal excision or D3 lymphadenectomy in the treatment of primary rectal cancer: an international analysis of 1411 patients. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 25, 368-374 (1999).
73. Gruen, R. L. et al. The effect of provider case volume on cancer mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis. CA Cancer J. Clin. 59, 192-211 (2009).
74. Smith, J. K. et al. National outcomes after gastric resection for neoplasm. Arch. Surg. 142, 387-393 (2007).
75. Skipworth, R. J. et al. The relationship between hospital volume and post-operative mortality rates for upper gastrointestinal cancer resections: Scotland 1982-2003. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 36, 141-147 (2010).
76. Begg, C. B., Cramer, L. D., Hoskins, W. J. & Brennan, M. F. Impact of hospital volume on operative mortality for major cancer surgery. JAMA 280, 1747-1751 (1998).
77. Michelassi, F. 2010 SSO presidential address: subspecialty certificate in advanced surgical oncology. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 17, 3094-3103 (2010).
78. van de Velde, C. J. et al. EURECCA colorectal: multidisciplinary mission statement on better care for patients with colon and rectal cancer in Europe. Eur. J. Cancer 49, 2784-2790 (2013).
79. Songun, I., Putter, H., Kranenbarg, E. M., Sasako, M. & van de Velde, C. J. Surgical treatment of gastric cancer: 15-year follow-up results of the randomised nationwide Dutch D1D2 trial. Lancet Oncol. 11, 439-449 (2010).
80. Krijnen, P., den Dulk, M., Meershoek-Klein Kranenbarg, E., Jansen-Landheer, M. L. & van de Velde, C. J. Improved survival after resectable non-cardia gastric cancer in the Netherlands: the importance of surgical training and quality control. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 35, 715-720 (2009).
81. Kodera, Y., Schwarz, R. E. & Nakao, A. Extended lymph node dissection in gastric carcinoma: where do we stand after the Dutch and British randomized trials? J. Am. Coll. Surg. 195, 855-864 (2002).
82. Bonenkamp, J. J., Hermans, J., Sasako, M. & van De Velde, C. J. Quality control of lymph node dissection in the Dutch randomized trial of D1 and D2 lymph node dissection for gastric cancer. Gastric Cancer 1, 152-159 (1998).
83. van Gijn, W. et al. Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer: 12-year follow-up of the multicentre, randomised controlled TME trial. Lancet Oncol. 12, 575-582 (2011).
84. den Dulk, M. & van de Velde, C. J. Quality assurance in surgical oncology: the tale of the Dutch rectal cancer TME trial. J. Surg. Oncol. 97, 5-7 (2008).
85. Quirke, P. et al. Effect of the plane of surgery achieved on local recurrence in patients with operable rectal cancer: a prospective study using data from the MRC CR07 and NCIC-CTG CO16 randomised clinical trial. Lancet 373, 821-828 (2009).
86. van Leersum, N. J., Kolfschoten, N. E., Klinkenbijl, J. H., Tollenaar, R. A. & Wouters, M. W. 'Clinical auditing', a novel tool for quality assessment in surgical oncology [Dutch]. Ned. Tijdschr. Geneeskd 155, A4136 (2011).
87. Jakobsen, E. et al. Nationwide quality improvement in lung cancer care: the role of the Danish Lung Cancer Group and Registry. J. Thorac. Oncol. 8, 1238-1247 (2013).
88. Van Leersum, N. J. et al. The Dutch surgical colorectal audit. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 39, 1063-1070 (2013).
89. Sauven, P. et al. The National Health Service Breast Screening Programme and British Association of Surgical Oncology audit of quality assurance in breast screening 1996-2001. Br. J. Surg. 90, 82-87 (2003).
90. Mansel, R. E. et al. Randomized multicenter trial of sentinel node biopsy versus standard axillary treatment in operable breast cancer: the ALMANAC Trial. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 98, 599-609 (2006).
91. Fleissig, A. et al. Post-operative arm morbidity and quality of life. Results of the ALMANAC randomised trial comparing sentinel node biopsy with standard axillary treatment in the management of patients with early breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 95, 279-293 (2006).
92. Paul, S., Isaacs, A. J., Treasure, T., Altorki, N. K. & Sedrakyan, A. Long term survival with thoracoscopic versus open lobectomy: propensity matched comparative analysis using SEER-Medicare database. BMJ 349, g5575 (2014).
93. Wong, Y. N. et al. Survival associated with treatment vs observation of localized prostate cancer in elderly men. JAMA 296, 2683-2693 (2006).
94. Rosenberg, S. A. et al. Prospective randomized evaluation of the role of limb-sparing surgery, radiation therapy, and adjuvant chemoimmunotherapy in the treatment of adult soft-tissue sarcomas. Surgery 84, 62-69 (1978).
95. Fisher, B. & Redmond, C. Lumpectomy for breast cancer: an update of the NSABP experience. National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project. J. Natl Cancer Inst. Monogr. 11, 7-13 (1992).
96. Veronesi, U. et al. Breast conservation is the treatment of choice in small breast cancer: long-term results of a randomized trial. Eur. J. Cancer 26, 668-670 (1990).
97. Early Breast Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group (EBCTCG). Effect of radiotherapy after breast-conserving surgery on 10-year recurrence and 15-year breast cancer death: meta-analysis of individual patient data for 10, 801 women in 17 randomised trials. Lancet 378, 1707-1716 (2011).
98. Clough, K. B., Kaufman, G. J., Nos, C, Buccimazza, I. & Sarfati, I. M. Improving breast cancer surgery: a classification and quadrant per quadrant atlas for oncoplastic surgery. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 17, 1375-1391 (2010).
99. Losken, A., Dugal, C. S., Styblo, T. M. & Carlson, G. W. A meta-analysis comparing breast conservation therapy alone to the oncoplastic technique. Ann. Plast Surg. 72, 145-149 (2014).
100. Rozen, W. M., Rajkomar, A. K., Anavekar, N. S. & Ashton, M. W. Post-mastectomy breast reconstruction: a history in evolution. Clin. Breast Cancer 9, 145-154 (2009).
101. Myers, G. J., Abudu, A. T., Carter, S. R., Tillman, R. M. & Grimer, R. J. Endoprosthetic replacement of the distal femur for bone tumours: long-term results. J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. 89, 521-526 (2007).
102. McAnena, O. J., Heald, R. J. & Lockhart-Mummery, H. E. Operative and functional results of total mesorectal excision with ultra-low anterior resection in the management of carcinoma of the lower one-third of the rectum. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 170, 517-521 (1990).
103. Maurer, C. A. Urinary and sexual function after total mesorectal excision. Recent Results Cancer Res. 165, 196-204 (2005).
104. Brown, S. R. & Seow-Choen, F. Preservation of rectal function after low anterior resection with formation of a neorectum. Semin. Surg. Oncol. 19, 376-385 (2000).
105. Gouvas, N., Tan, E., Windsor, A., Xynos, E. & Tekkis, P. P. Fast-track vs standard care colorectal surgery: a meta-analysis update. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 24, 1119-1131 (2009).
106. Sorensen, J. et al. EuroOOPS: an international, multicentre study to implement nutritional risk screening and evaluate clinical outcome. Clin. Nutr. 27, 340-349 (2008).
107. Minig, L. et al. Reduction of postoperative complication rate with the use of early oral feeding in gynecologic oncologic patients undergoing a major surgery: a randomized controlled trial. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 16, 3101-3110 (2009).
108. Wu, M. H., Lin, M. T. & Chen, W. J. Effect of perioperative parenteral nutritional support for gastric cancer patients undergoing gastrectomy. Hepatogastroenterology 55, 799-802 (2008).
109. Beattie, W. S., Badner, N. H. & Choi, P. Epidural analgesia reduces postoperative myocardial nfarction: a meta-analysis. Anesth. Analg. 93, 853-858 (2001).
110. Rodgers, A. et al. Reduction of postoperative mortality and morbidity with epidural or spinal anaesthesia: results from overview of randomised trials. BMJ 321, 1493 (2000).
111. Kesson, E. M., Allardice, G. M., George, W. D., Burns, H. J. & Morrison, D. S. Effects of multidisciplinary team working on breast cancer survival: retrospective, comparative, interventional cohort study of 13, 722 women. BMJ 344, e2718 (2012).
112. Baselga, J. et al. Lapatinib with trastuzumab for HER2-positive early breast cancer (NeoALTTO): a randomised, open-label, multicentre, phase 3 trial. Lancet 379, 633-640 (2012).
113. Cunningham, D. et al. Perioperative chemotherapy versus surgery alone for resectable gastroesophageal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 355, 11-20 (2006).
114. Ronellenfitsch, U. et al. Perioperative chemo(radio)therapy versus primary surgery for resectable adenocarcinoma of the stomach, gastroesophageal junction, and lower esophagus. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 5. Art. No.: CD008107 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008107.pub2 (2013).
115. Wong, R. K., Tandan, V., De Silva, S. & Figueredo, A. Pre-operative radiotherapy and curative surgery for the management of localized rectal carcinoma. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD002102 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002102.pub2 (2007).
116. Ataseven, B. et al. Impact of multifocal or multicentric disease on surgery and locoregional, distant and overall survival of 6, 134 breast cancer patients treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Ann. Surg. Oncol. http://dx.doi.org/10.1245/s10434-014-4122-7 (2014).
117. Dixon, J. M., Renshaw, L., Dixon, J. & Thomas, J. Invasive lobular carcinoma: response to neoadjuvant letrozole therapy. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 130, 871-877 (2011).
118. Willett, C. G. Sphincter preservation in rectal cancer. Curr. Treat. Options Oncol. 1, 399-405 (2000).
119. Weiser, M. R. et al. Sphincter preservation in low rectal cancer is facilitated by preoperative chemoradiation and intersphincteric dissection. Ann. Surg. 249, 236-242 (2009).
120. Castoro, C. et al. Complete clinical response after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy for squamous cell cancer of the thoracic oesophagus: is surgery always necessary? J. Gastrointest. Surg. 17, 1375-1381 (2013).
121. Vaidya, J. S. et al. Targeted intraoperative radiotherapy versus whole breast radiotherapy for breast cancer (TARGIT-A trial): an international, prospective, randomised, non-inferiority phase 3 trial. Lancet 376, 91-102 (2010).
122. Alberts, S. R. & Poston, G. J. Treatment advances in liver-limited metastatic colorectal cancer. Clin. Colorectal Cancer 10, 258-265 (2011).
123. Chua, T. C. et al. Early-and long-term outcome data of patients with pseudomyxoma peritonei from appendiceal origin treated by a strategy of cytoreductive surgery and hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy. J. Clin. Oncol. 30, 2449-2456 (2012).
124. Treasure, T. & Utley, M. Surgical removal of asymptomatic pulmonary metastases: time for better evidence. BMJ 346, f824 (2013).
125. Neumann, U. P., Seehofer, D. & Neuhaus, P. The surgical treatment of hepatic metastases in colorectal carcinoma. Dtsch Arztebl. Int. 107, 335-342 (2010).
126. Eastley, N., Newey, M. & Ashford, R. U. Skeletal metastases-the role of the orthopaedic and spinal surgeon. Surg. Oncol. 21, 216-222 (2012).
127. Stattner, S. et al. Microwave ablation with or without resection for colorectal liver metastases. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 39, 844-849 (2013).
128. Glazer, E. S., Hornbrook, M. C. & Krouse, R. S. A meta-analysis of randomized trials: immediate stent placement vs. surgical bypass in the palliative management of malignant biliary obstruction. J. Pain Symptom Manage. 47, 307-314 (2014).
129. 18F-FDG PET/CT has a high impact on patient management and provides powerful prognostic stratification in the primary staging of esophageal cancer: a prospective study with mature survival data. J. Nucl. Med. 53, 864-871 (2012).
130. Taylor, F. G. et al. Preoperative magnetic resonance imaging assessment of circumferential resection margin predicts disease-free survival and local recurrence: 5-year follow-up results of the MERCURY study. J. Clin. Oncol. 32, 34-43 (2014).
131. Kneeshaw, P. J., Turnbull, L. W., Smith, A. & Drew, P. J. Dynamic contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging aids the surgical management of invasive lobular breast cancer. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 29, 32-37 (2003).
132. Feng, K. & Ma, K. S. Value of radiofrequency ablation in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. World J. Gastroenterol. 20, 5987-5998 (2014).
133. Shindoh, J. et al. Portal vein embolization improves rate of resection of extensive colorectal liver metastases without worsening survival. Br. J. Surg. 100, 1777-1783 (2013).
134. Schwartz, M. J., Smith, E. B., Trost, D. W. & Vaughan, E. D. Jr. Renal artery embolization: clinical indications and experience from over 100 cases. BJU Int. 99, 881-886 (2007).
135. Kalman, D. & Varenhorst, E. The role of arterial embolization in renal cell carcinoma. Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol. 33, 162-170 (1999).
136. Scalo, J. F. & Rascati, K. L. Trends and issues in oncology costs. Expert Rev. Pharmacoecon. Outcomes Res. 14, 35-44 (2014).
137. Chi, C. et al. Intraoperative imaging-guided cancer surgery: from current fluorescence molecular imaging methods to future multi-modality imaging technology. Theranostics 4, 1072-1084 (2014).
138. Barone, D. G., Lawrie, T. A. & Hart, M. G. Image guided surgery for the resection of brain tumours. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 1. Art. No.: CD009685 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009685.pub2 (2014).
139. Vahrmeijer, A. L., Hutteman, M., van der Vorst, J. R., van de Velde, C. J. & Frangioni, J. V. Image-guided cancer surgery using near-infrared fluorescence. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 10, 507-518 (2013).