The lost generation: Environmental regulatory reform in the era of congressional abdication

Duke Environmental Law and Policy Forum

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 49-99

  Case, David W ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI   (United States)

^b Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADVOCACY; ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION; ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; LAW ENFORCEMENT; POLICY MAKING; REGULATORY APPROACH;

EID: 84922179458     PISSN: 10643958     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. Pub. L. No. 91-190, 83 Stat. 852 (1969) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 4321- 4370h).
2. Richard N. L. Andrews, The EPA at 40: An Historical Perspective, 21 DUKE ENVTL. L. & POL’Y F. 223, 227 (2011).
3. Cary Coglianese, Social Movements, Law, and Society: The Institutionalization of the Environment, 150 U. PA. L. REV. 85, 97-98 (2001) [hereinafter Coglianese, Social Movements].
4. Sandra Zellmer, Treading Water While Congress Ignores the Nation’s Environment, 88 NOTRE DAME L. Rev. 2323, 2328 (2014).
5. Todd S. Aagaard, Environmental Law Outside the Canon, 89 IND. L. J. 1239, 1240-41 (2014).
6. Jonathan H. Adler, Conservative Principles in Environmental Reform, 23 DUKE ENVTL. L. & POL’Y F. 253, 253 & n.3 (2013) (noting the enactment of a very few “minor environmental bills” since 1990 none of which made “significant changes to the nation’s primary pollution control or conservation statutes").
7. David W. Case, The EPA’s Environmental Stewardship Initiative: Attempting to Revitalize a Floundering Regulatory Reform Agenda, 50 EMORY L.J. 1, 23-26 (2001) [hereinafter Case, Regulatory Reform Agenda] (describing specific environmental and political issues that divided policymakers in the 1990s).
8. RICHARD N. L. ANDREWS, MANAGING THE ENVIRONMENT, MANAGING Ourselves: A History of American Environmental Policy 282-83 (2d ed. 2006) (finding that political conflict and distrust prevent policymakers from developing consensus on environmental issues).
9. Christopher McGrory Klyza & David J. Sousa, American ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY: BEYOND GRIDLOCK x (2013) ("Despite congressional gridlock, environmental policymaking remains, and strong pressures for change play out along [alternative policymaking] pathways.").
10. Nicole Darnall & Stephen R. Sides, Assessing the Performance of Voluntary Environmental Programs, 36 POL’Y STUD. J. 95, 97 (2008) (examining the promotion of voluntary environmental programs as alternative approaches to traditional environmental regulation).
11. Cary Coglianese & Jennifer Nash, Management-Based Strategies: An Emerging Approach to Environmental Protection, in LEVERAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR: MANAGEMENT BASED STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE 3 (Cary Coglianese & Jennifer Nash eds., 2006) [hereinafter Coglianese & Nash, Management- Based Strategies] (examining “management-based” regulatory strategies to encourage or mandate adoption of formalized environmental management systems to pursue environmental performance improvements not achievable solely through traditional regulatory approaches).
12. LeRoy C. Paddock, Green Governance: Building the Competencies Necessary for Effective Environmental Management, 38 ENVTL. L. REP. 10609, 10609 (2008) (calling for reform in environmental governance by integrating alternative regulatory approaches into direct regulatory systems to control corporate environmental behavior).
13. Robert V. Percival et al., Environmental Regulation: Law, Science, and Policy 90-91 (7th ed. 2013).
14. Pub. L. No. 80-845, 62 Stat. 1155 (1948).
15. Pub. L. No. 84-159, 69 Stat. 322 (1955).
16. Pub. L. No. 84-660, 70 Stat. 498 (1956).
17. Pub. L. No. 88-206, 77 Stat. 392 (1963).
18. Pub. L. No. 89-234, 79 Stat. 903 (1965).
19. Pub. L. No. 89-753, 80 Stat. 1246 (1966).
20. Pub. L. No. 90-148, 81 Stat. 485 (1967).
21. Lynn E. Blais, The Legitimate Reach of the Environmental Revolution, 37 HARV. J. L. & PUB. POL’Y 13, 14 (2014) (describing early 1970s federal environmental protection legislation as “mark[ing] a dramatic revolution in the role of the federal government with respect to environmental protection.").
22. Robert V. Percival, Regulatory Evolution and the Future of Environmental Policy, 1997 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 159, 16465 n.30 (describing the “revolutionary nature” of 1970s environmental protection legislation).
23. RACHEL CARSON, SILENT SPRING (1962).
24. Richard J. Lazarus, THE MAKING OF Environmental Law 58-59 (2004).
25. Denis Binder, Perspectives on Forty Years of Environmental Law, 1 GEO. WASH. J. ENERGY & ENVTL. L. 143, 143 (2012).
26. Pub. L. No. 91-604, 84 Stat. 1676 (1970) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 7401- 7671q).
27. Pub. L. No. 92-500, 86 Stat. 816 (1972) (codified as amended at 33 U.S.C. §§ 12511387).
28. Pub. L. No. 92-583, 86 Stat. 1280 (1972) (codified as amended at 16 U.S.C. §§ 1451-64).
29. Pub. L. No. 92-516, 86 Stat. 973 (1972) (codified as amended at 7 U.S.C. §§ 136(a)-(y)).
30. Pub. L. No. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884 (1973) (codified as amended at 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-44).
31. Pub. L. No. 93-523, 88 Stat. 1660 (1974) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300f).
32. Pub. L. No. 94-580, 90 Stat. 2795 (1976) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 6901- 6992k).
33. Pub. L. No. 94-469, 90 Stat. 2003 (1976) (codified as amended at 15 U.S.C. §§ 2601-92).
34. Pub. L. No. 96-510, 94 Stat. 2767 (1980) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 9601-75).
35. Richard J. Lazarus, A Different Kind of “Republican Moment” in Environmental Law, 87 MINN. L. REV. 999, 999 (2003) [hereinafter Lazarus] (internal quotation marks and alterations omitted).
36. Daniel A. Farber, The Thirty Years War over Federal Regulation, 92 Tex. L. Rev. 413, 419 (2013) (reviewing THOMAS O. McGarity, FREEDOM TO Harm: The Lasting Legacy of the Laissez Faire Revival (2013)) [hereinafter Farber, Thirty Years War].
37. Joel A. Mintz, Assessing National Environmental Enforcement: Some Lessons From the United States Experience, 26 Geo. INT’L ENVTL. L. REV. 1, 6 (2013) (discussing early Reagan Administration efforts “to undermine—if not abolish entirely—the [EPA’s] enforcement program").
38. Rena I. Steinzor, Reinventing Environmental Regulation: The Dangerous Journey from Command to Self-Control, 22 HARV. ENVTL. L. rev. 103, 107 (1998) [hereinafter Steinzor, Reinventing Regulation] ("Congress’s determination to establish a network of detailed regulatory requirements was motivated by a popular backlash against the Reagan administration’s environmental policies, in particular its stewardship of the EPA.").
39. James Florio, Congress as Reluctant Regulator: Hazardous Waste Policy in the 1980s, 3 YALE J. ON REG. 351, 351-53 (1986) (finding that Congress was provoked into assuming a regulatory role by the Reagan administration’s deregulation agenda).
40. Pub. L. No. 99-499, 100 Stat. 1613 (1986) (codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 11001-50).
41. Pub. L. No. 101-380, 104 Stat. 486 (1990) (codified as amended at 33 U.S.C. §§ 270160).
42. Pub. L. No. 101-508, 104 Stat. 1388 (1990) (codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 13101-09).
43. Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984, Pub. L. No. 98-616, 98 Stat. 3221 (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 6901).
44. Safe Drinking Water Amendments of 1986, Pub. L. No. 99-339, 100 Stat. 642 (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 201).
45. Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986, Pub. L. No. 99-499, 100 Stat. 1613 (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 9601).
46. Water Quality Act of 1987, Pub. L. No. 100-4, 100 Stat. 7 (codified at 33 U.S.C. § 1251).
47. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-549, 104 Stat. 2399 (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 7407).
48. Zygmunt J.B. Plater, Environmental Law as a Mirror of the Future: Civic Values Confronting Market Force-Dynamics in a Time of Counter-Revolution, 23 B.C. ENVTL. Aff. L. Rev. 733, 734-35 (1996).
49. Michael E. Kraft, Environmental Policy in Congress: Revolution, Reform, or Gridlock?, in ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE 1990s 119, 137 (Norman J. Vig & Michael E. Kraft eds., 3d ed., 1997) (describing intense negative public reaction to Republican environmental agenda in the 104th Congress).
50. Michael Ray Harris, Environmental Deliberative Democracy and the Search for Administrative Legitimacy: A Legal Positivism Approach, 44 U. MICH. J.L. REFORM 343, 363 (2011) [hereinafter Harris] ("Today, most scholars accept that our nation’s environmental story has become a story of Congressional inaction….").
51. Michael B. Gerrard & Shelley Welton, US Federal Climate Change in Obama’s Second Term, 3 TRANSNAT’L ENVTL. L. 111, 112 (2014).
52. Sam Kalen, Dormancy Versus Innovation: A Next Generation Dormant Commerce Clause, 65 OKLA. L. Rev. 381, 382 (2013) (noting that “[t]oday’s Congress” is dominated by “partisan gridlock” that is “unlikely to change anytime soon").
53. Daniel A. Farber, Climate Policy and the United States System of Divided Powers: Dealing with Carbon Leakage and Regulatory Leakage, 3 TRANSNAT’L ENVTL. L. 31, 54 (2014).
54. Benjamin Ewing & Douglas A. Kysar, Prods and Pleas: Limited Government in an Era of Unlimited Harm, 121 YALE L.J. 350, 354 (2011).
55. If anything, the prospects for significant new federal environmental legislation seem bleaker than ever").
56. Douglas A. Kysar, Law, Environment, and Vision, 97 NW. U. L. REV. 675, 675 (2003).
57. Michael E. Kraft & Norman J. Vig, Environmental Policy from the 1970s to the 1990s: An Overview, in ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE 1990S 1, 23 (Norman J. Vig & Michael E. Kraft eds., 3d ed., 1997) ("As the data reviewed… suggest, the nation made impressive gains between 1970 and 1996 in controlling many conventional pollutants….").
58. J.B. Ruhl, Regulation by Adaptive Management - Is it Possible?, 7 MINN. J.L. SCI. & TECH 21, 21 (2005).
59. Michael P. Vandenbergh, From Smokestack to SUV: The Individual as Regulated Entity in the New Era of Environmental Law, 57 VAND. L. REV. 515, 526 (2004).
60. Cary Coglianese & Jennifer Nash, Environmental Management Systems and the New Policy Agenda, in REGULATING FROM THE INSIDE: CAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS ACHIEVE POLICY Goals 1, 1 (Cary Coglianese & Jennifer Nash eds., 2001) [hereinafter Coglianese & Nash, Environmental Management Systems].
61. J. Clarence Davies & Janice Mazurek, Pollution Control in the United States: Evaluating the System 270-76 (1998).
62. Jesse Ratcliffe, Reinvisioning the Risk Bubble: Utilizing a System of Intra-Firm Risk Trading for Environmental Protection, 92 CAL. L. REV. 1779, 1784 (2004).
63. David W. Case, Corporate Environmental Reporting as Informational Regulation: A Law and Economics Perspective, 76 U. COLO. L. REV. 379, 380 n.2 (2005) [hereinafter Case, Corporate Environmental Reporting] ("The phrase ‘command-and-control’ has taken on a life of its own in the environmental literature. Despite its widespread use, there is significant disagreement regarding a precise definition of the phrase").
64. Jodi L. Short, The Paranoid Style in Regulatory Reform, 63 HASTINGS L.J. 633, 658-59 (2012) ("the term [command and control] is deployed routinely in articles that criticize regulation” and “although [it] has become widely used short-hand in contemporary legal circles, it is rarely defined and its meanings and functions have become either submerged or taken for granted").
65. Kathryn Harrison, Talking with the Donkey: Cooperative Approaches to Environmental Protection, 2 J. INDUS. ECOLOGY 51, 53 (1999) [hereinafter Harrison, Talking with the Donkey] (noting that “command and control” is commonly overused as a “pejorative catchall for any and all criticisms of environmental regulation").
66. Bradley C. Karkkainen, Framing Rules: Breaking the Information Bottleneck, 17 N.Y.U. ENVTL. L.J. 75, 75 (2008) [hereinafter Karkkainen, Framing Rules].
67. David J. Sousa & Christopher McGrory Klyza, New Directions in Environmental Policy Making: An Emerging Collaborative Regime or Reinventing Interest Group Liberalism?, 47 Nat. RESOURCES J. 377, 378 (2007).
68. David W. Case, Changing Corporate Behavior Through Environmental Management Systems, 31 WM. & MARY ENVTL. L. & POL’Y REV. 75, 81-82 (2006) [hereinafter Case, Changing Corporate Behavior] (explaining that because environmental enforcement authorities are historically underfunded, existing environmental laws are under-enforced, and that therefore the potential benefits of existing laws do not always obtain).
69. Sarah L. Stafford, Private Policing of Environmental Performance: Does it Further Public Goals?, 39 B.C. ENVTL. AFF. L. REV. 73, 74 (2012) (discussing declining EPA enforcement budgets and staffing).
70. Timothy F. Malloy, The Social Construction of Regulation: Lessons From the War Against Command and Control, 58 BUFF. L. REV. 267, 269 (2010) (critiquing the “homogeneity proposition [that] posits that command and control regulation applies a one-size-fits-all approach that fails to distinguish among firms in terms of their economic, technological, or organizational capacities to reduce emissions").
71. Carol A. Casazza Herman et al., The Breaking the Logjam Project, 17 N.Y.U. ENVTL. L.J. 1, 3 (2008) (noting that “almost 40 years after the passage of our basic federal governing structure, we have learned more about some old environmental problems and the limits of the regulatory tools we have used to address them").
72. Richard B. Stewart, A New Generation of Environmental Regulation, 29 CAP. U. L. REV. 21, 27-38 (2001) [hereinafter Stewart, New Generation] (arguing that the existing federal environmental regulatory system is unable to sustain additional progress).
73. Debra S. Knopman, Easier to be Green: The Second Generation of Environmental Action, in BUILDING THE BRIDGE: 10 BIG IDEAS TO TRANSFORM AMERICA 163, 164 (Will Marshall ed., 1997) (discussing the need for a “second generation” environmental strategy).
74. THINKING ECOLOGICALLY: THE NEXT GENERATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL Policy (Marian R. Chertow & Daniel C. Esty eds., 1997) [hereinafter Chertow & Esty] (discussing ideas to shift federal environmental regulatory policy to “next generation” models).
75. Michael P. Vandenbergh, An Alternative to Ready, Fire, Aim: A New Framework to Link Environmental Targets in Environmental Law, 85 KY. L.J. 803 (1997) (discussing a “utopian” perspective for radical environmental regulatory reform).
76. Bill Clinton & Al Gore, Reinventing Environmental Regulation, NAT’L P’SHIP FOR REINVENTING gov’t at 8-16, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/npr/library/rsreport/251a.html (last visited Nov. 4, 2014) (listing 25 potential alternatives to command-and-control environmental regulation).
77. Rena I. Steinzor, Regulatory Reinvention and Project XL: Does the Emperor Have Any New Clothes?, 26 ENVTL. L. Rep. 10527, 10527 (1996).
78. Nat’l Acad. of Pub. Admin., Setting Priorities, Getting Results: A New Direction for EPA (1995).
79. National Academy of Public Administration, Resolving the Paradox of Environmental Protection: An Agenda for Congress, EPA, & the States: A Report for Congress (1997) [hereinafter NAPA, Resolving the Paradox].
80. The President’s Council on Sustainable Dev., Sustainable America: A New Consensus for Prosperity, Opportunity, and a Healthy Environment for the Future (1996).
81. Aspen Inst., Series on the Environment in the 21st Century, The Alternative Path: A Cleaner, Cheaper way to Protect and Enhance the Environment (1996).
82. Nat’l Envtl. Policy Inst., Reinventing the Vehicle for Environmental Management (1995)
83. Enter. for the Env’t, The Environmental Protection System in Transition: Toward a More Desirable Future (1997).
84. Richard B. Stewart, United States Environmental Regulation: A Failing Paradigm, 15 J.L. & COM. 585, 585-91 (1996) (criticizing the “[u]niform ‘one size fits all'" environmental policies currently in place as “destined to fail unless basic changes are made.").
85. J. Clarence Davies & Janice Mazurek, Regulating Pollution: Does the U.S. System WORK? 2 (1997) ("For all its accomplishments, we conclude that the pollution control regulatory system is deeply and fundamentally flawed.").
86. John E. Blodgett, Congressional Research Service Report for Congress RL30760: Environmental Protection: New Approaches (2000).
87. Cary Coglianese & Jennifer Nash, Performance Track’s Postmortem: Lessons from the Rise and Fall of EPA’s “Flagship” Voluntary Program, 38 HARV. ENVTL. L. Rev. 1, 3 (2014) [hereinafter Coglianese & Nash, Performance Track’s Postmortem] (noting that EPA had created more than sixty different voluntary environmental programs by the mid-2000s).
88. N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. 1, 1-1046 (2008).
89. David Schoenbrod et al., Breaking the Logjam: Environmental Reform for the New Congress and Administration (2009).
90. American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009, H.R. 2454, 111th Cong. (2009).
91. E. Donald Elliott, Environmental Markets and Beyond: Three Modest Proposals for the Future of Environmental Law, 29 CAP. U. L. REV. 245, 245 (2001) (offering the expansion of environmental markets, including cap and trade, as recommendations for the “next generation” of environmental regulation).
92. Bradley C. Karkkainen, Bottlenecks and Baselines: Tackling Information Deficits in Environmental Regulation, 86 TEX. L. REV. 1409, 1419 (2008) [hereinafter Karkkainen, Bottlenecks].
93. Bruce Ackerman & Richard B. Stewart, Reforming Environmental Law, 37 STAN. L. REV. 1333, 1341-48 (1985) (noting the goal of programs is “achievement of the environmental quality level that would result if all sources installed BAT controls on their discharges” and discussing incentives designed to promote this goal while rewarding those who achieve it at the lowest cost).
94. Toddi A. Steelman & Jorge Rivera, Voluntary Environmental Programs in the United States, 19 ORG. & ENV’T 505, 507 (2006) (detailing the various approaches to self-regulation—voluntary initiatives, negotiated agreements, and unilateral programs—that have expanded since the 1980s.
95. Andrew King & Michael W. Toffel, Self-regulatory Institutions for Solving Environmental Problems: Perspectives and Contributions from the Management Literature, in Governance for the Environment: New Perspectives 98, 112-13 (Magali Delmas & Oran Young eds., 2009) (exploring management literature that suggest self-regulation should be taken seriously as a solution to environmental problems).
96. Al Iannuzzi, Self-Regulation - Has Its Time Come?, 33 ENVTL. L. Rep. 10917, 10921-22 (2003) (noting that self-regulation has resulted in companies voluntarily reducing emission of pollutants but that there are risks associated with self-regulation such as corruption).
97. Industry’s incentive will always be to seek the least-cost solution… even if it means externalizing costs (like excessive levels of pollution) to society. Predictably, then, self-regulation will tend toward regulating with an exceedingly light hand, and this tendency will be compounded by a lack of transparency and accountability in the decision-making process.").
98. Lesley K. McAllister, Regulation by Third Party Verification, 53 B.C. L. REV. 1, 25 (2012) ("Examples of market-based environmental regulation include… information regulation, such as corporate environmental reporting requirements.").
99. Sarah E. Light, NEPA’s Footprint: Information Disclosure as a Quasi-Carbon Tax on Agencies, 87 TUL. L. REV. 511, 519-23 (2013).
100. David W. Case, The Law and Economics of Environmental Information as Regulation, 31 ENVTL. L. Rep. 10773, 10785 (2001) [hereinafter Case, Environmental Information as Regulation].
101. Bradley C. Karkkainen, Information as Environmental Regulation: TRI and Performance Benchmarking, Precursor to a New Paradigm?, 89 Geo. L.J. 257, 261-62 (2001) [hereinafter Karkkainen, Information as Environmental Regulation].
102. Shameek Konar & Mark A. Cohen, Information as Regulation: The Effect of Community Right to Know Law on Toxic Emissions, 32 J. ENVTL. Econ. & Mgmt. 109, 110 (1997) (explaining that the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act required certain manufacturers to disclose details of toxic chemical emissions).
103. Bernard A. Weintraub, Access to Information, in THE LAW OF ENVIRONMENTAL Justice: Theories and Procedures to Address Disproportionate Risks 265, 276 (Michael B. Gerrard & Sheila R. Foster eds., 2d ed. 2008).
104. James T. Hamilton, Pollution as News: Media and Stock Market Reactions to the Toxics Release Inventory Data, 28 J. ENVTL. ECON & Mgmt. 98, 112 (1995) (finding that TRI data is of value to journalists and investors, and that stock prices would decrease when companies disclosed information about emissions).
105. Madhu Khanna et al., Toxics Release Information: A Policy Tool for Environmental Protection, 36 J. ENVTL. ECON & MGMT. 243, 265 (1998) (noting that repeated provision of information about company’s emissions affected the value of the company over time, and that this led to companies increasing off-site transfers to recycling and treatment facilities).
106. Cary Coglianese, The Managerial Turn in Environmental Policy, 17 N.Y.U. ENVTL. L.J. 54, 55 (2008) [hereinafter Coglianese, Managerial Turn]; LEVERAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR: Management-Based Strategies for Improving Environmental Performance 14-17 (Cary Coglianese & Jennifer Nash eds., 2006).
107. Richard N.L. Andrews et al., Environmental Management Systems: History, Theory, and Implementation Research, in REGULATING FROM THE INSIDE: CAN Environmental Management Systems Achieve Policy Goals? 31, 31-33 (Cary Coglianese & Jennifer Nash eds., 2001).
108. Hope Babcock, Corporate Environmental Social Responsibility: Corporate “Greenwashing” or a Corporate Culture Game Changer?, 21 Fordham Envtl. L. Rev. 1, 55-58 (2010).
109. Cary Coglianese & Jennifer Nash, Management-Based Strategies for Improving Private- Sector Environmental Performance, 36 ENVTL. L. REP. 10003, 10005 (2006) [hereinafter Coglianese & Nash, Management-Based Strategies].
110. Bruce Paton, Voluntary Environmental Initiatives and Sustainable Industry, 9 BUS. STRATEGY & Env’T 328, 328 (2000) [hereinafter Paton, Voluntary Environmental Initiatives].
111. Thomas P. Lyon & John W. Maxwell, “Voluntary” Approaches to Environmental Regulation: A Survey, in ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL Policy 75, 78-79 (Maurizio Franzini & Antonio Nicita eds., 2002) [hereinafter Lyon & Maxwell, “Voluntary” Approaches] (summarizing three examples of voluntary negotiated agreements between regulators and businesses to reduce emissions).
112. Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies (CERES). The Ceres Principles, CERES, http://www.ceres.org/about-us/our-history/ceres-principles (last visited Nov. 8, 2014).
113. Kathryn Harrison, Challenges in Evaluating Voluntary Environmental Programs, in NEW TOOLS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION: EDUCATION, INFORMATION, AND VOLUNTARY Measures 263, 264-65 (Thomas Dietz & Paul C. Stern eds., 2002) [hereinafter Harrison, Voluntary Environmental Programs].
114. Alan Blackman et al., Voluntary Environmental Regulation in Developing Countries: Mexico’s Clean Industry Program 1 (Resources for the Future, Discussion Paper No. 07-36, July 2007), available at http://www.rff.org/documents/RFF-DP-07-36.pdf.
115. John Moffet & Francois Bregha, Non-Regulatory Environmental Measures, in VOLUNTARY INITIATIVES: THE NEW POLITICS OF CORPORATE GREENING 15, 16 (Robert B. Gibson ed., 1999).
116. Richard D. Morgenstern & William A. Pizer, Introduction: The Challenge of Evaluating Voluntary Programs, in REALITY CHECK: THE NATURE AND PERFORMANCE OF VOLUNTARY Environmental Programs in the United States, Europe, and Japan 1, 4 (Richard D. Morgenstern & William A. Pizer eds., 2007) [hereinafter Morgenstern & Pizer, Evaluating Voluntary Programs].
117. Philippe Thalmann & Andrea Baranzini, An Overview of the Economics of Voluntary Approaches in Climate Policies, in VOLUNTARY APPROACHES IN CLIMATE POLICY 1, 5 (Andrea Baranzini & Philippe Thalmann eds., 2004).
118. Thomas P. Lyon & John W. Maxwell, Environmental Public Voluntary Programs Reconsidered, 35 POL’Y STUD. J. 723, 723 (2007) [hereinafter Lyon & Maxwell, Voluntary Programs Reconsidered].
119. Janice Mazurek, Government-Sponsored Voluntary Programs for Firms: An Initial Survey, in NEW TOOLS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION: EDUCATION, INFORMATION, AND VOLUNTARY Measures 219, 223 (Thomas Dietz & Paul C. Stern eds., 2002).
120. Lada V. Kochtcheeva, Comparative Environmental Regulation in the United States and Russia: Institutions, Flexible Instruments, and Governance 110-11 (2009).
121. Dinah A. Koehler, The Effectiveness of Voluntary Environmental Programs - A Policy at a Crossroads?, 35 POL’Y STUD. J. 689, 691 (2007).
122. Madhu Khanna, The U.S. 33/50 Voluntary Program: Its Design and Effectiveness, in REALITY CHECK: The Nature and Performance of Voluntary Environmental Programs in the United States, Europe, and Japan 15, 15 (Richard D. Morgenstern & William A. Pizer eds., 2007).
123. David W. Case, The EPA’s HPV Challenge Program: A Tort Liability Trap?, 62 WASH. & LEE L. Rev. 147, 159-62 (2005) [hereinafter Case, HPV Challenge Program].
124. Cary Coglianese, Assessing Consensus: The Promise and Performance of Negotiated Rulemaking, 46 DUKE L.J. 1255 (1997) [hereinafter Coglianese, Assessing Consensus] (assessing the effectiveness and value of negotiated rulemaking).
125. Negotiated Rulemaking Act, Pub. L. No. 101-648, 104 Stat. 4969 (codified at 5 U.S.C. §§ 561-570a).
126. David B. Spence & Lekha Gopalakrishnan, Bargaining Theory & Regulatory Reform: The Political Logic of Inefficient Regulation, 53 Vand. L. REV. 599, 601 (2000) (observing that “[m]any of [EPA’s] reinvention programs have stalled or failed to meet expectations").
127. Richard D. Morgenstern & William A. Pizer, Concluding Observations: What Can We Learn from the Case Studies?, in REALITY CHECK: THE Nature and Performance of Voluntary Environmental Programs in the United STATES, Europe, and Japan 166, 184 (Richard D. Morgenstern & William A. Pizer eds., 2007) [hereinafter, Morgenstern & Pizer, Case Studies] (concluding from review of research on voluntary environmental programs that environmental gains were limited and none of the case studies “found truly convincing evidence of dramatic environmental improvements").
128. Charles C. Caldart & Nicholas A. Ashford, Negotiation as a Means of Developing and Implementing Environmental and Occupational Safety and Health Policy, 23 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 141, 183 (1999).
129. Cary Coglianese & Jennifer Nash, Beyond Compliance: Business Decision Making AND THE US EPA’S PERFORMANCE Track Program 3 (2006).
130. Thomas P. Lyon & John W. Maxwell, Public Voluntary Programmes for Mitigating Climate Change, in VOLUNTARY APPROACHES IN CLIMATE POLICY 134-35 (Andrea Baranzini & Philippe Thalmann eds., 2004).
131. Paul Muldoon & Ramani Nadarajah, A Sober Second Look, in VOLUNTARY Initiatives: The New Politics of Corporate Greening 51, 53, 54 (Robert B. Gibson ed., 1999).
132. Timothy F. Malloy, Regulation, Compliance and the Firm, 76 TEMP. L. REV. 451, 511-23 (2003) (comparing relative strengths and weaknesses of voluntary and mandatory EMS- based self-regulatory mechanisms).
133. Josephine Maltby, Setting Its Own Standards and Meeting Those Standards: Volunteerism Versus Regulation in Environmental Reporting, 6 BUS. STRATEGY & THE Env’T 83, 89-91 (1997) (discussing the dispute between supporters of voluntary approaches to environmental information disclosure and those favoring mandatory approaches).
134. Sonja Gallhofer & Jim Haslam, The Direction of Green Accounting Policy: Critical Reflections, 10 ACCT., AUDITING & ACCOUNTABILITY J. 148, 149-65 (1997) (contrasting support for voluntary approaches to environmental information disclosure to a critical theoretical justification for a mandatory regulatory approach).
135. Wendy E. Wagner, Imagining Corporate Sustainability as a Public Good Rather Than a Corporate Bad, 46 Wake FOREST L. REV. 561, 562, 579-88 (2011) (advocating mandatory information disclosure as an alternative regulatory approach under an information as a public good analysis).
136. Joey Tsu-Yi Chen, Green Sox for Investors: Requiring Companies to Disclose Risks Related to Climate Change, 5 J. BUS. & TECH. L. 325, 354-56 (2010) (advocating a mandatory approach to informational regulation in the context of requiring disclosure of corporate data relative to climate risks).
137. Andrew Schatz, Regulating Greenhouse Gases by Mandatory Information Disclosure, 26 VA. ENVTL. L.J. 335, 392-93 (2008) (arguing for mandatory information disclosure programs as a regulatory approach for achieving reductions of greenhouse gas emissions).
138. Sarah Binder, Polarized We Govern? (Center for Effective Public Management at Brookings Working Paper, May 2014), at 2 (copy on file with author) ("At the close of the 112th Congress in early January 2013, numerous Washington observers charged that the 112th Congress was the most dysfunctional Congress ever.").
139. Drew Desilver, Congress Continues its Streak of Passing Few Significant Laws, PEW RESEARCH CENTER (July 31, 2014), available at http://www. pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/07/31/congress-continues-its-streak-of-passing-few-significant- laws/.
140. Morris P. Fiorina, America’s Polarized Politics: Causes and Solutions, 11 PERSP. ON POL. 852 (2013).
141. Justin Grimmer, Appropriators not Position Takers: The Distorting Effects of Electoral Incentives on Congressional Representation, 57 AM. J. OF POL. SCI. 624 (2013).
142. Ashley E. Jochim & Bryan D. Jones, Issue Politics in a Polarized Congress, 66 POL. RES. Q. 352 (2012).
143. Jeffrey Rudd, J.B. Ruhl’s “Law-and-Society System": Burying Norms and Democracy Under Complexity Theory’s Foundation, 29 WM. & MARY ENVTL. L. & POL’Y REV. 551, 556 (2005) [hereinafter Rudd] (calling on Congress to “become more proactive in environmental matters critical to advancing the public’s interests").