Management of Fibromyalgia Syndrome: Review of Evidence

Pain and Therapy

Volumn 2, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 87-104

  Okifuji, Akiko ^a   Hare, Bradford D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF UTAH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Classification criteria; Duloxetine; Fibromyalgia; Milnacipran; Non pharmacologic treatment; Pain; Pharmacologic treatment; Pregabalin

Indexed keywords

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE; AMITRIPTYLINE; BENZODIAZEPINE; CATECHOLAMINE; CORTICOSTEROID; CORTICOTROPIN; CREATINE PHOSPHATE; CYCLOBENZAPRINE; DOPAMINE 2 RECEPTOR; DULOXETINE; MILNACIPRAN; NABILONE; NEUROTRANSMITTER; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; NORADRENALIN; OXYBATE SODIUM; PRAMIPEXOLE; PREGABALIN; PROLACTIN; SEROTONIN; TRAMADOL; TRYPTOPHAN;

ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; BEHAVIOR THERAPY; COGNITIVE THERAPY; DNA POLYMORPHISM; EDUCATION; EXERCISE; EXERCISE INTENSITY; FATIGUE; FIBROMYALGIA SYNDROME; HUMAN; HYPERALGESIA; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); MULTICENTER STUDY (TOPIC); MUSCLE BLOOD FLOW; MUSCLE DISEASE; MUSCULOSKELETAL DISEASE; NOCICEPTION; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; PAIN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RAYNAUD PHENOMENON; REVIEW; SLEEP; SYMPTOM ASSESSMENT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (TOPIC);

EID: 84921928858     PISSN: 21938237     EISSN: 2193651X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s40122-013-0016-9     Document Type: Review

References (124)

1. Wolfe F, Smythe HA, Yunus MB, Bennett RM, Bombardier C, Goldenberg DL, et al. The American college of rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of fibromyalgia. Report of the Multicenter Criteria Committee [see comments]. Arthr Rheum. 1990;33(2): 160-72.
2. White KP, Speechley M, Harth M, Ostbye T. The London fibromyalgia epidemiology study: direct health care costs of fibromyalgia syndrome in London. Canada. J Rheumatol. 1999;26(4): 885-9.
3. Lawrence RC, Felson DT, Helmick CG, Arnold LM, Choi H, Deyo RA, et al. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States. Part II. Arthr Rheum. 2008;58(1): 26-35.
4. Simons DG. Muscle pain syndromes-Part I. Am J Phys Med. 1975;54(6): 289-311.
5. Gowers W. Lumbago: its lessons and analogues. BMJ. 1904;1: 117-21.
6. Bennett RM. Fibrositis: misnomer for a common rheumatic disorder. West J Med. 1981;134(5): 405-13.
7. Yunus M, Masi AT, Calabro JJ, Miller KA, Feigenbaum SL. Primary fibromyalgia (fibrositis): clinical study of 50 patients with matched normal controls. Semin Arthr Rheum. 1981;11(1): 151-71.
8. Smythe H. Nonarticular rheumatism and the fibrositis syndrome. In: Hollander L, editor. Arthritis and allied conditions; a textbook of rheumatology. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger; 1972. p. 874-84.
9. Yunus MB, Masi AT, Aldag JC. Preliminary criteria for primary fibromyalgia syndrome (PFS): multivariate analysis of a consecutive series of PFS, other pain patients, and normal subjects. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1989;7(1): 63-9.
10. McCarberg B, Barkin RL, Wright JA, Cronan TA, Groessl E, Schmidt SM. Tender points as predictors of distress and the pharmacologic management of fibromyalgia syndrome. Am J Ther. 2003;10(3): 176-92.
11. Petzke F, Gracely RH, Park KM, Ambrose K, Clauw DJ. What do tender points measure? Influence of distress on 4 measures of tenderness. J Rheumatol. 2003;30(3): 567-74.
12. Wolfe F. The relation between tender points and fibromyalgia symptom variables: evidence that fibromyalgia is not a discrete disorder in the clinic. Ann Rheum Dis. 1997;56(4): 268-71.
13. Woolf CJ. Central sensitization: implications for the diagnosis and treatment of pain. Pain. 2011;152(3 Suppl): S2-15.
14. Clauw DJ, Crofford LJ. Chronic widespread pain and fibromyalgia: what we know, and what we need to know. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2003;17(4): 685-701.
15. Fitzcharles MA, Boulos P. Inaccuracy in the diagnosis of fibromyalgia syndrome: analysis of referrals. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2003;42(2): 263-7.
16. Katz RS, Wolfe F, Michaud K. Fibromyalgia diagnosis: a comparison of clinical, survey, and American college of rheumatology criteria. Arthr Rheum. 2006;54(1): 169-76.
17. Wolfe F, Clauw DJ, Fitzcharles MA, Goldenberg DL, Katz RS, Mease P, et al. The American college of rheumatology preliminary diagnostic criteria for fibromyalgia and measurement of symptom severity. Arthr Care Res (Hoboken). 2010;62(5): 600-10.
18. Arroyo JF, Cohen ML. Abnormal responses to electrocutaneous stimulation in fibromyalgia [see comments]. J Rheumatol. 1993;20(11): 1925-31.
19. 2 laser stimulation in subjects with fibromyalgia syndrome. Pain. 1994;58(2): 185-93.
20. Kosek E, Hansson P. Modulatory influence on somatosensory perception from vibration and heterotopic noxious conditioning stimulation (HNCS) in fibromyalgia patients and healthy subjects. Pain. 1997;70(1): 41-51.
21. Petzke F, Clauw DJ, Ambrose K, Khine A, Gracely RH. Increased pain sensitivity in fibromyalgia: effects of stimulus type and mode of presentation. Pain. 2003;105(3): 403-13.
22. Staud R, Price DD, Robinson ME, Mauderli AP, Vierck CJ. Maintenance of windup of second pain requires less frequent stimulation in fibromyalgia patients compared to normal controls. Pain. 2004;110(3): 689-96.
23. Gracely RH, Petzke F, Wolf JM, Clauw DJ. Functional magnetic resonance imaging evidence of augmented pain processing in fibromyalgia. Arthr Rheum. 2002;46(5): 1333-43.
24. Lorenz J, Grasedyck K, Bromm B. Middle and long latency somatosensory evoked potentials after painful laser stimulation in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1996;100(2): 165-8.
25. Yunus MB, Dailey JW, Aldag JC, Masi AT, Jobe PC. Plasma tryptophan and other amino acids in primary fibromyalgia: a controlled study. J Rheumatol. 1992;19(1): 90-4.
26. Wolfe F, Russell IJ, Vipraio G, Ross K, Anderson J. Serotonin levels, pain threshold, and fibromyalgia symptoms in the general population. J Rheumatol. 1997;24(3): 555-9.
27. Norregaard J, Bulow PM, Mehlsen J, Danneskiold-Samsoe B. Biochemical changes in relation to a maximal exercise test in patients with fibromyalgia. Clin Physiol. 1994;14(2): 159-67.
28. Russell IJ, Michalek JE, Vipraio GA, Fletcher EM, Javors MA, Bowden CA. Platelet 3H-imipramine uptake receptor density and serum serotonin levels in patients with fibromyalgia/fibrositis syndrome [see comments]. J Rheumatol. 1992;19(1): 104-9.
29. Malt EA, Olafsson S, Aakvaag A, Lund A, Ursin H. Altered dopamine D2 receptor function in fibromyalgia patients: a neuroendocrine study with buspirone in women with fibromyalgia compared to female population based controls. J Affect Disord. 2003;75(1): 77-82.
30. Wood PB, Patterson JC 2nd, Sunderland JJ, Tainter KH, Glabus MF, Lilien DL. Reduced presynaptic dopamine activity in fibromyalgia syndrome demonstrated with positron emission tomography: a pilot study. J Pain. 2007;8(1): 51-8.
31. Kadetoff D, Kosek E. Evidence of reduced sympatho-adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary activity during static muscular work in patients with fibromyalgia. J Rehabil Med. 2010;42(8): 765-72.
32. van Denderen JC, Boersma JW, Zeinstra P, Hollander AP, van Neerbos BR. Physiological effects of exhaustive physical exercise in primary fibromyalgia syndrome (PFS): is PFS a disorder of neuroendocrine reactivity? Scand J Rheumatol. 1992;21(1): 35-7.
33. Loevinger BL, Muller D, Alonso C, Coe CL. Metabolic syndrome in women with chronic pain. Metabolism. 2007;56(1): 87-93.
34. Hamaty D, Valentine JL, Howard R, Howard CW, Wakefield V, Patten MS. The plasma endorphin, prostaglandin and catecholamine profile of patients with fibrositis treated with cyclobenzaprine and placebo: a 5-month study. J Rheumatol Suppl. 1989;19: 164-8.
35. Adler GK, Kinsley BT, Hurwitz S, Mossey CJ, Goldenberg DL. Reduced hypothalamic-pituitary and sympathoadrenal responses to hypoglycemia in women with fibromyalgia syndrome. Am J Med. 1999;106(5): 534-43.
36. Crofford LJ, Pillemer SR, Kalogeras KT, Cash JM, Michelson D, Kling MA, et al. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis perturbations in patients with fibromyalgia. Arthr Rheum. 1994;37(11): 1583-92.
37. Martinez-Lavin M. Biology and therapy of fibromyalgia. Stress, the stress response system, and fibromyalgia. Arthr Res Ther. 2007;9(4): 216.
38. Di Franco M, Iannuccelli C, Valesini G. Neuroendocrine immunology of fibromyalgia. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1193: 84-90.
39. Staud R. Heart rate variability as a biomarker of fibromyalgia syndrome. Fut Rheumatol. 2008;3(5): 475-83.
40. Di Franco M, Iannuccelli C, Alessandri C, Paradiso M, Riccieri V, Libri F, et al. Autonomic dysfunction and neuropeptide Y in fibromyalgia. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2009;27(5 Suppl 56): S75-8.
41. Vargas-Alarcon G, Fragoso JM, Cruz-Robles D, Vargas A, Martinez A, Lao-Villadoniga JI, et al. Association of adrenergic receptor gene polymorphisms with different fibromyalgia syndrome domains. Arthr Rheum. 2009;60(7): 2169-73.
42. Light KC, White AT, Tadler S, Iacob E, Light AR. Genetics and gene expression involving stress and distress pathways in fibromyalgia with and without comorbid chronic fatigue syndrome. Pain Res Treat. 2012;2012: 1-13.
43. Xiao Y, He W, Russell IJ. Genetic polymorphisms of the beta2-adrenergic receptor relate to guanosine protein-coupled stimulator receptor dysfunction in fibromyalgia syndrome. J Rheumatol. 2011;38(6): 1095-103.
44. Light AR, Bateman L, Jo D, Hughen RW, Vanhaitsma TA, White AT, et al. Gene expression alterations at baseline and following moderate exercise in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia syndrome. J Intern Med. 2012;271(1): 64-81.
45. Light AR, White AT, Hughen RW, Light KC. Moderate exercise increases expression for sensory, adrenergic, and immune genes in chronic fatigue syndrome patients but not in normal subjects. J Pain. 2009;10(10): 1099-112.
46. Bengtsson A, Henriksson KG, Larsson J. Muscle biopsy in primary fibromyalgia. Light-microscopical and histochemical findings. Scand J Rheumatol. 1986;15(1): 1-6.
47. Drewes AM, Andreasen A, Schroder HD, Hogsaa B, Jennum P. Pathology of skeletal muscle in fibromyalgia: a histo-immuno-chemical and ultrastructural study. Br J Rheumatol. 1993;32(6): 479-83.
48. Bengtsson A, Henriksson KG. The muscle in fibromyalgia-a review of Swedish studies. J Rheumatol Suppl. 1989;19: 144-9.
49. Park JH, Phothimat P, Oates CT, Hernanz-Schulman M, Olsen NJ. Use of P-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy to detect metabolic abnormalities in muscles of patients with fibromyalgia. Arthr Rheum. 1998;41(3): 406-13.
50. Sprott H, Rzanny R, Reichenbach JR, Kaiser WA, Hein G, Stein G. 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy in fibromyalgic muscle. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2000;39(10): 1121-5.
51. Elvin A, Siosteen AK, Nilsson A, Kosek E. Decreased muscle blood flow in fibromyalgia patients during standardised muscle exercise: a contrast media enhanced colour Doppler study. Eur J Pain. 2006;10(2): 137-44.
52. Bennett RM, Clark SR, Campbell SM, Ingram SB, Burckhardt CS, Nelson DL, et al. Symptoms of Raynaud's syndrome in patients with fibromyalgia. A study utilizing the Nielsen test, digital photoplethysmography, and measurements of platelet alpha 2-adrenergic receptors. Arthr Rheum. 1991;34(3): 264-9.
53. Ge HY, Nie H, Madeleine P, Danneskiold-Samsoe B, Graven-Nielsen T, Arendt-Nielsen L. Contribution of the local and referred pain from active myofascial trigger points in fibromyalgia syndrome. Pain. 2009;147(1-3): 233-40.
54. Alonso-Blanco C, Fernandez-de-las-Penas C, Morales-Cabezas M, Zarco-Moreno P, Ge HY, Florez-Garcia M. Multiple active myofascial trigger points reproduce the overall spontaneous pain pattern in women with fibromyalgia and are related to widespread mechanical hypersensitivity. Clin J Pain. 2011;27(5): 405-13.
55. Staud R. Peripheral pain mechanisms in chronic widespread pain. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2011;25(2): 155-64.
56. Arnold LM, Russell IJ, Diri EW, Duan WR, Young JP Jr, Sharma U, et al. A 14-week, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled monotherapy trial of pregabalin in patients with fibromyalgia. J Pain. 2008;9(9): 792-805.
57. Hauser W, Bernardy K, Uceyler N, Sommer C. Treatment of fibromyalgia syndrome with gabapentin and pregabalin-a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Pain. 2009;145(1-2): 69-81.
58. Straube S, Derry S, Moore RA, McQuay HJ. Pregabalin in fibromyalgia: meta-analysis of efficacy and safety from company clinical trial reports. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2010;49(4): 706-15.
59. Arnold LM, Emir B, Murphy TK, Zeiher BG, Pauer L, Scott G, et al. Safety profile and tolerability of up to 1 year of pregabalin treatment in 3 open-label extension studies in patients with fibromyalgia. Clin Ther. 2012;34(5): 1092-102.
60. Arnold LM, Rosen A, Pritchett YL, D'Souza DN, Goldstein DJ, Iyengar S, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of duloxetine in the treatment of women with fibromyalgia with or without major depressive disorder. Pain. 2005;119(1-3): 5-15.
61. Arnold LM, Lu Y, Crofford LJ, Wohlreich M, Detke MJ, Iyengar S, et al. A double-blind, multicenter trial comparing duloxetine with placebo in the treatment of fibromyalgia patients with or without major depressive disorder. Arthr Rheum. 2004;50(9): 2974-84.
62. Russell IJ, Mease PJ, Smith TR, Kajdasz DK, Wohlreich MM, Detke MJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of duloxetine for treatment of fibromyalgia in patients with or without major depressive disorder: results from a 6-month, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose trial. Pain. 2008;136(3): 432-44.
63. Arnold LM, Clauw DJ, Wohlreich MM, Wang F, Ahl J, Gaynor PJ, et al. Efficacy of duloxetine in patients with fibromyalgia: pooled analysis of 4 placebo-controlled clinical trials. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2009;11(5): 237-44.
64. Arnold LM, Wang F, Ahl J, Gaynor PJ, Wohlreich MM. Improvement in multiple dimensions of fatigue in patients with fibromyalgia treated with duloxetine: secondary analysis of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthr Res Ther. 2011;13(3): R86-93.
65. Mease PJ, Russell IJ, Kajdasz DK, Wiltse CG, Detke MJ, Wohlreich MM, et al. Long-term safety, tolerability, and efficacy of duloxetine in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Semin Arthr Rheum. 2010;39(6): 454-64.
66. Arnold LM, Zhang S, Pangallo BA. Efficacy and safety of duloxetine 30 mg/d in patients with fibromyalgia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Clin J Pain. 2012;28(9): 775-81.
67. Vitton O, Gendreau M, Gendreau J, Kranzler J, Rao SG. A double-blind placebo-controlled trial of milnacipran in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2004;19(Suppl 1): S27-35.
68. Clauw DJ, Mease P, Palmer RH, Gendreau RM, Wang Y. Milnacipran for the treatment of fibromyalgia in adults: a 15-week, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multiple-dose clinical trial. Clin Ther. 2008;30(11): 1988-2004.
69. Mease PJ, Clauw DJ, Gendreau RM, Rao SG, Kranzler J, Chen W, et al. The efficacy and safety of milnacipran for treatment of fibromyalgia. a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Rheumatol. 2009;36(2): 398-409.
70. Geisser ME, Palmer RH, Gendreau RM, Wang Y, Clauw DJ. A pooled analysis of two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of milnacipran monotherapy in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Pain Pract. 2011;11(2): 120-31.
71. Arnold LM, Palmer RH, Ma Y. A 3-year, open-label, flexible-dosing study of milnacipran for the treatment of fibromyalgia. Clin J Pain. 2013 [Epub ahead of print].
72. Hauser W, Petzke F, Sommer C. Comparative efficacy and harms of duloxetine, milnacipran, and pregabalin in fibromyalgia syndrome. J Pain. 2010;11(6): 505-21.
73. Hauser W, Sarzi-Puttini P, Tolle TR, Wolfe F. Placebo and nocebo responses in randomised controlled trials of drugs applying for approval for fibromyalgia syndrome treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2012;30(6 Suppl 74): 78-87.
74. Barker JC, Harris SL, Dyer JE. Experiences of gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) ingestion: a focus group study. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2007;39(2): 115-29.
75. Carter LP, Pardi D, Gorsline J, Griffiths RR. Illicit gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and pharmaceutical sodium oxybate (Xyrem): differences in characteristics and misuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009;104(1-2): 1-10.
76. Wang YG, Swick TJ, Carter LP, Thorpy MJ, Benowitz NL. Sodium oxybate: updates and correction to previously published safety data. J Clin Sleep Med. 2011;7(4): 415-6.
77. Pardi D, Black J. gamma-Hydroxybutyrate/sodium oxybate: neurobiology, and impact on sleep and wakefulness. CNS Drugs. 2006;20(12): 993-1018.
78. Scharf MB, Baumann M, Berkowitz DV. The effects of sodium oxybate on clinical symptoms and sleep patterns in patients with fibromyalgia. J Rheumatol. 2003;30(5): 1070-4.
79. Russell IJ, Perkins AT, Michalek JE. Sodium oxybate relieves pain and improves function in fibromyalgia syndrome: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter clinical trial. Arthr Rheum. 2009;60(1): 299-309.
80. Russell IJ, Holman AJ, Swick TJ, Alvarez-Horine S, Wang YG, Guinta D. Sodium oxybate reduces pain, fatigue, and sleep disturbance and improves functionality in fibromyalgia: results from a 14-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Pain. 2011;152(5): 1007-17.
81. Spaeth M, Bennett RM, Benson BA, Wang YG, Lai C, Choy EH. Sodium oxybate therapy provides multidimensional improvement in fibromyalgia: results of an international phase 3 trial. Ann Rheum Dis. 2012;71(6): 935-42.
82. Burckhardt CS, Clark SR, Bennett RM. The fibromyalgia impact questionnaire: development and validation. J Rheumatol. 1991;18(5): 728-33.
83. Food and Drug Administration. [cited 2013 04-03]; Xyrem® (sodium oxybate)]. Available from: http://www. fda. gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/05n0479/05N-0479-EC9-Attach-2. pdf.
84. Alarcon GS. Questioning the likelihood that sodium oxybate can be used to successfully treat fibromyalgia: comment on the article by Russell et al. Arthr Rheum. 2009;60(9): 2854.
85. Moldofsky H, Inhaber NH, Guinta DR, Alvarez-Horine SB. Effects of sodium oxybate on sleep physiology and sleep/wake-related symptoms in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. J Rheumatol. 2010;37(10): 2156-66.
86. Summary Minutes of the Joint Meeting of the Arthritis Advisory Committee and the Drug Safety and Risk Management Advisory Committee. Bethesda: FDA. 2010.
87. Arnold LM, Keck PE Jr, Welge JA. Antidepressant treatment of fibromyalgia. A meta-analysis and review. Psychosomatics. 2000;41(2): 104-13.
88. Carette S, Bell MJ, Reynolds WJ, Haraoui B, McCain GA, Bykerk VP, et al. Comparison of amitriptyline, cyclobenzaprine, and placebo in the treatment of fibromyalgia. A randomized, double-blind clinical trial [see comments]. Arthr Rheum. 1994;37(1): 32-40.
89. Goldenberg D, Mayskiy M, Mossey C, Ruthazer R, Schmid C. A randomized, double-blind crossover trial of fluoxetine and amitriptyline in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Arthr Rheum. 1996;39(11): 1852-9.
90. Wolfe F, Cathey MA, Hawley DJ. A double-blind placebo controlled trial of fluoxetine in fibromyalgia. Scand J Rheumatol. 1994;23(5): 255-9.
91. Arnold LM, Hess EV, Hudson JI, Welge JA, Berno SE, Keck PE Jr. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, flexible-dose study of fluoxetine in the treatment of women with fibromyalgia. Am J Med. 2002;112(3): 191-7.
92. Clark S, Tindall E, Bennett RM. A double blind crossover trial of prednisone versus placebo in the treatment of fibrositis. J Rheumatol. 1985;12(5): 980-3.
93. Russell IJ, Fletcher EM, Michalek JE, McBroom PC, Hester GG. Treatment of primary fibrositis/fibromyalgia syndrome with ibuprofen and alprazolam. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arthr Rheum. 1991;34(5): 552-60.
94. Mease PJ, Dundon K, Sarzi-Puttini P. Pharmacotherapy of fibromyalgia. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2011;25(2): 285-97.
95. Ngian GS, Guymer EK, Littlejohn GO. The use of opioids in fibromyalgia. Int J Rheum Dis. 2011;14(1): 6-11.
96. Bennett RM, Kamin M, Karim R, Rosenthal N. Tramadol and acetaminophen combination tablets in the treatment of fibromyalgia pain: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Am J Med. 2003;114(7): 537-45.
97. Moldofsky H, Lue FA, Mously C, Roth-Schechter B, Reynolds WJ. The effect of zolpidem in patients with fibromyalgia: a dose ranging, double blind, placebo controlled, modified crossover study. J Rheumatol. 1996;23(3): 529-33.
98. Clauw DJ. Pharmacotherapy for patients with fibromyalgia. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(Suppl 2): 25-9.
99. Holman AJ, Myers RR. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of pramipexole, a dopamine agonist, in patients with fibromyalgia receiving concomitant medications. Arthr Rheum. 2005;52(8): 2495-505.
100. Berlach DM, Shir Y, Ware MA. Experience with the synthetic cannabinoid nabilone in chronic noncancer pain. Pain Med. 2006;7(1): 25-9.
101. Skrabek RQ, Galimova L, Ethans K, Perry D. Nabilone for the treatment of pain in fibromyalgia. J Pain. 2008;9(2): 164-73.
102. Ware MA, Fitzcharles MA, Joseph L, Shir Y. The effects of nabilone on sleep in fibromyalgia: results of a randomized controlled trial. Anesth Analg. 2010;110(2): 604-10.
103. Lynch ME, Campbell F. Cannabinoids for treatment of chronic non-cancer pain; a systematic review of randomized trials. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2011;72(5): 735-44.
104. Kelley GA, Kelley KS, Jones DL. Efficacy and effectiveness of exercise on tender points in adults with fibromyalgia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arthritis. 2011;2011: 125485.
105. Jones KD, Adams D, Winters-Stone K, Burckhardt CS. A comprehensive review of 46 exercise treatment studies in fibromyalgia (1988-2005). Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2006;4: 67.
106. Busch AJ, Webber SC, Brachaniec M, Bidonde J, Bello-Haas VD, Danyliw AD, et al. Exercise therapy for fibromyalgia. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2011;15(5): 358-67.
107. Jones KD, Burckhardt CS, Deodhar AA, Perrin NA, Hanson GC, Bennett RM. A six-month randomized controlled trial of exercise and pyridostigmine in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Arthr Rheum. 2008;58(2): 612-22.
108. Bernardy K, Fuber N, Klose P, Hauser W. Efficacy of hypnosis/guided imagery in fibromyalgia syndrome-a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2011;12: 133-43.
109. Okifuji A, Hare BD. Mangement of musculoskeletal pain. In: Ebert MH, Kerns RD, editors. Behavioral and Pharmacologic Pain Management: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2010.
110. Grossman P, Tiefenthaler-Gilmer U, Raysz A, Kesper U. Mindfulness training as an intervention for fibromyalgia: evidence of postintervention and 3-year follow-up benefits in well-being. Psychother Psychosom. 2007;76(4): 226-33.
111. Schmidt S, Grossman P, Schwarzer B, Jena S, Naumann J, Walach H. Treating fibromyalgia with mindfulness-based stress reduction: results from a 3-armed randomized controlled trial. Pain. 2011;152(2): 361-9.
112. Adams N, Sim J. Rehabilitation approaches in fibromyalgia. Disabil Rehabil. 2005;27(12): 711-23.
113. Alda M, Luciano JV, Andres E, Serrano-Blanco A, Rodero B, del Hoyo YL, et al. Effectiveness of cognitive behaviour therapy for the treatment of catastrophisation in patients with fibromyalgia: a randomised controlled trial. Arthr Res Ther. 2011;13(5): R173-85.
114. Wicksell RK, Kemani M, Jensen K, Kosek E, Kadetoff D, Sorjonen K, et al. Acceptance and commitment therapy for fibromyalgia: a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Pain. 2013;17(4): 599-611.
115. Bernardy K, Fuber N, Kollner V, Hauser W. Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapies in fibromyalgia syndrome-a systematic review and metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. J Rheumatol. 2010;37(10): 1991-2005.
116. Scascighini L, Toma V, Dober-Spielmann S, Sprott H. Multidisciplinary treatment for chronic pain: a systematic review of interventions and outcomes. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2008;47(5): 670-8.
117. Martin J, Torre F, Padierna A, Aguirre U, Gonzalez N, Garcia S, et al. Six-and 12-month follow-up of an interdisciplinary fibromyalgia treatment programme: results of a randomised trial. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2012;30(6 Suppl 74): 103-11.
118. Arnold LM, Clauw DJ, Dunegan LJ, Turk DC. A framework for fibromyalgia management for primary care providers. Mayo Clin Proc. 2012;87(5): 488-96.
119. Ang DC, Jensen MP, Steiner JL, Hilligoss J, Gracely RH, Saha C. Combining cognitive-behavioral therapy and milnacipran for fibromyalgia: a feasibility randomized-controlled trial. Clin J Pain. 2013;29(9): 747-54.
120. Donaldson GW, Nakamura Y, Moinpour C. Mediators, moderators, and modulators of causal effects in clinical trials-dynamically modified outcomes (DYNAMO) in health-related quality of life. Qual Life Res. 2009;18(2): 137-45.
121. Almirall D, Compton SN, Gunlicks-Stoessel M, Duan N, Murphy SA. Designing a pilot sequential multiple assignment randomized trial for developing an adaptive treatment strategy. Stat Med. 2012;31(17): 1887-902.
122. Wilson HD, Starz TW, Robinson JP, Turk DC. Heterogeneity within the fibromyalgia population: theoretical implications of variable tender point severity ratings. J Rheumatol. 2009;36(12): 2795-801.
123. Okifuji A, Turk DC. Stress and psychophysiological dysregulation in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 2002;27(2): 129-41.
124. Okifuji A, Bradshaw DH, Donaldson GW, Turk DC. Sequential analyses of daily symptoms in women with fibromyalgia syndrome. J Pain. 2011;12(1): 84-93.