Conflict and Control at Different Levels of Self-Regulation

Self Control in Society, Mind, and Brain

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages

  Scholer, Abigail A ^a   Higgins, E Tory ^a  

^a Columbia University ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

Conflict; Regulatory fit; Regulatory focus; Self control; Self regulatory hierarchy

Indexed keywords

EID: 84921259941     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195391381.003.0017     Document Type: Chapter

References (114)

1. Aldwin, C. Stress, coping, and development. New York, NY: Guilford Press, 1994.
2. Avnet, T., & Higgins, E. T. Locomotion, assessment, and regulatory fit: Value transfer from "how" to "what." J Exp Soc Psychol 2003; 39: 525-530.
3. Bargh, J.A., Gollwitzer, P.M., Lee-Chai, A., Barndollar, K., & Trotschel, R. The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals. J Pers Soc Psychol 2001; 81: 1014-1027.
4. Bandura, A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychol Rev 1977; 84: 191-215.
5. Bandura, A. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman, 1997.
6. Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? J Pers Soc Psychol 1998; 74: 1252-1265.
7. Baumeister, R. F., Schmeichel, B. J., & Vohs, K. D. Self-regulation and the executive function. The self as controlling agent. In: Kruglanski, A. W., & Higgins, E. T. (Eds.), Social Psychology: Handbook of basic principles, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Guilford, 2007: pp. 516-539.
8. Bianco, A. T., Higgins, E. T., & Klem, A. How "fun/importance" fit affects performance: Relating implicit theories to instructions. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2003; 29: 1091-1103.
9. Bowlby, J. Attachment (Attachment and loss, Vol.1). New York, NY: Basic Books, 1969.
10. Bowlby, J. Separation: Anxiety and anger (Attachment and loss, Vol.2). New York, NY: Basic Books, 1973.
11. Cantor, N. Life task problem solving: Situational affordances and personal needs. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 1994; 20: 235-243.
12. Cantor, N., & Kihlstrom, J. F. Personality and social intelligence. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1987.
13. Carver, C. Some ways in which goals differ and some implications of those differences. In: Gollwitzer, P., & Bargh, J. (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition to motivation and behavior. New York, NY: Guilford, 1996; pp. 645-672.
14. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. Attention and self-regulation: A control theory approach to human behavior. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
15. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. Origins and functions of positive and negative effect: A control-process view. Psychol Rev 1990; 97: 19-35.
16. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. Situational coping and coping dispositions in a stressful transaction. J Pers Soc Psychol 1994; 66: 184-195.
17. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. On the self-regulation of behavior. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
18. Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. J Pers Soc Psychol 1989; 56: 267-283.
19. Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. Nonconscious motivations: Their activation, operation, and consequences. In: Tesser, A., Stapel, D., & Wood, J. V. (Eds.), Self and motivation: Emerging psychological perspectives. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2002: pp. 13-41.
20. Cheng, C. Cognitive and motivational processes underlying coping flexibility: A dual process model. J Pers Soc Psychol 2003; 84: 425-238.
21. Chui, C., Hong, Y., Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. Discriminative facility in social competence: Conditional versus dispositional encoding and monitoring-blunting of information. Soc Cogn 1995; 13: 49-70.
22. Crowe, E., & Higgins, E. T. Regulatory focus and strategic inclinations: Promotion and prevention in decision-making. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 1997; 69: 117-132.
23. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum, 1985.
24. Dweck, C. Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Philadelphia: Psychology Press, 1999.
25. Elliot, A. J. The hierarchical model of approach-avoidance motivation. Motiv Emot 2006; 30: 111-116.
26. Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. J Pers Soc Psychol 1997; 72: 218-232.
27. Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. J Pers Soc Psychol 1996; 70: 461-475.
28. Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A 2×2 achievement goal framework. J Pers Soc Psychol 2001; 80: 501-519.
29. Elliot, A. J., & Sheldon, K. M. Avoidance achievement motivation: A personal goals analysis. J Pers Soc Psychol 1997; 73: 171-175.
30. Elliot, A. J., & Sheldon, K. M. Avoidance personal goals and the personality-illness relationship. J Pers Soc Psychol 1998; 75: 1282-1299.
31. Elliot, A. J., Sheldon, K. M., & Church, M. A. Avoidance personal goals and subjective well-being. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 1997; 23: 915-927.
32. Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T.M. Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: Approach and avoidance temperaments and goals. J Pers Soc Psychol 2002; 82: 804-818.
33. Emmons, R., & McAdams, D. Personal strivings and motive dispositions: Exploring the links. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 1991; 17: 648-654.
34. Fitzsimons, G. M., & Bargh, J. A. Thinking of you: Nonconscious pursuit of interpersonal goals associated with relationship partners. J Pers Soc Psychol 2003; 84: 148-163.
35. Förster, J., Higgins, E. T., & Bianco, A. T. Speed/accuracy decisions in task performance: Built in trade-of or separate strategic concerns? Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 2003; 90: 148-164.
36. Freitas, A. L., & Higgins, E. T. Enjoying goal-directed action: The role of regulatory fit. Psychol Sci 2002; 13: 1-6.
37. Freud, S. A general introduction to psychoanalysis. New York, NY: Washington Square Press, 1952. (Original work published 1920).
38. Freud, S. The ego and the id. In: Strachey, J. (Ed. and Trans.), Standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 19. London: Hogarth Press, 1961: pp. 3-66. (Original work published 1923).
39. Friedman, R. S., & Förster, J. The effects of promotion and prevention cues on creativity. J Pers Soc Psychol 2001; 81: 1001-1013.
40. Fujita, K. Seeing the forest beyond the trees: A construal-level approach to self-control. Soc Personal Psychol Compass 2008; 2/3: 1475-1496.
41. Fujita, K., Trope, Y., Liberman, N., & Levin-Sagi, M. Construal levels and self-control. J Pers Soc Psychol 2006; 90: 351-367.
42. Gable, S. L. Approach and avoidance social motives and goals. J Pers 2006; 74: 175-222.
43. Gaillot, M. T., Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., et al. Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor. J Pers Soc Psychol 2007; 92: 325-336.
44. Gollwitzer, P. M., Fujita, K., & Oettingen, G. Planning and the implementation of goals. In Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory and applications. New York, NY: Guilford Press, 2004: pp. 211-228.
45. Grant, H., Higgins, E. T., Baer, A., & Bolger, N. Coping style and regulatory fit: Emotional ups and downs in life. Unpublished manuscript, 2008.
46. Gray, J. A. The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1982.
47. Gross, J. J. The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Rev Gen Psychol 1998; 2: 271-299.
48. Hassin, R. R., Aarts, H., Eitam, B., Custers, R., & Kleiman, T. Non-conscious goal pursuit and the effortful control of behavior. In: Morsella, E., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Bargh, J. A. (Eds.), The psychology of action, vol II. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, in press.
49. Hassin, R. R., Bargh, J. A., & Zimerman, S. Automatic and flexible: The case of nonconscious goal pursuit. Soc Cogn 2009; 27: 20-36.
50. Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motiv Emot 1987; 11: 101-120.
51. Hembree, R. Correlates, causes, effects, and treatment of test anxiety. Rev Educ Res 1988; 58: 47-77.
52. Higgins, E. T. Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychol Rev 1987; 94: 319-340.
53. Higgins, E. T. Beyond pleasure and pain. Am Psychol 1997; 52: 1280-1300.
54. Higgins, E.T. Knowledge accessibility and activation: Subjectivity and suffering from unconscious sources. In: Uleman, J., & Bargh, J. (Eds.), Unintended thought. New York, NY: Guilford, 1998: pp. 75-123.
55. Higgins, E. T. Making a good decision: Value from fit. Am Psychol 2000; 55: 1217-1230.
56. Higgins, E. T. Value from hedonic experience and engagement. Psychol Rev 2006; 113: 439-460.
57. Higgins, E.T. Organization of motives: Value, truth, and control working together. Unpublished manuscript, Columbia University, 2009.
58. Higgins, E. T., Bond, R. N., Klein, R., & Strauman, T. Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: How magnitude, accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence affect. J Pers Soc Psychol 1986; 51: 5-15.
59. Higgins, E. T., Friedman, R. S., Harlow, R. E., Idson, L. C., Ayduk, O. N., & Taylor, A. Achievement orientations from subjective histories of success: Promotion pride versus prevention pride. Eur J Soc Psychol 2001; 31: 3-23.
60. Higgins, E. T., Idson, L. C., Freitas, A. L., Spiegel, S., & Molden, D. C. Transfer of value from fit. J Pers Soc Psychol 2003; 84: 1140-1153.
61. Higgins, E. T., Roney, C. J. R., Crowe, E., & Hymes, C. Ideal versus ought predilections for approach and avoidance: Distinct self-regulatory systems. J Pers Soc Psychol 1994; 66: 276-286.
62. Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. J Pers Soc Psychol 1997; 72: 515-525.
63. Hong, J., & Lee, A. Y. Be fit and be strong: Mastering self-regulation with regulatory fit. J Consum Res 2008; 34: 682-695.
64. Howell, A. J., & Watson, D. C. Procrastination: Associations with achievement goal orientation and learning strategies. Pers Individ Dif 2007; 43: 167-178.
65. Janis, I. L., & Mann, L. Decision-making: A psychological analysis of conflict, choice, and commitment. New York, NY: Free Press, 1977.
66. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica 1979; 47: 263-291.
67. Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. Further examining the American dream: Well-being correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic goals. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 1996; 22: 281-288.
68. Kruglanski, A. W. Goals as knowledge structures. In: Gollwitzer, P. M., & Bargh, J. A. (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior. New York, NY: Guilford Press, 1996: pp. 599-619.
69. Kruglanski, A. W., Shah, J. Y., Fishbach, A., Friedman, R., Chun, W., & Sleeth-Keppler, D. A theory of goal systems. In: Zanna, M. P. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology. 2002; 34: 331-378.
70. Lang, P. J. The emotion probe: Studies of motivation and attention. Am Psychol 1995; 50: 372-385.
71. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York, NY: Springer, 1984.
72. Lewin, K. A dynamic theory of personality. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1935.
73. Linville, P. W., & Clark, L. F. Production systems and social problem-solving: Specificity, flexibility, and expertise. In: Wyer, J. R. S., & Srull, T. K. (Eds.), Social intelligence and cognitive assessments of personality. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989: pp. 131-151.
74. Metcalfe, J., & Mischel, W. A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: Dynamics of willpower. Psychol Rev 1999; 106: 3-19.
75. Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. Plans and the structure of behavior. New York, NY: Henry Holt, 1960.
76. Miller, N. E. Experimental studies of conflict. In: McV. Hunt J. (Ed.), Personality and the behavior disorders, Vol. 1. New York, NY: Ronald Press, 1994: pp. 431-465.
77. Mischel, W., & Baker, N. Cognitive appraisals and transformations in delay behavior. J Pers Soc Psychol 1975; 31: 254-261.
78. Mischel, W., Cantor, N., & Feldman, S. Principles of self-regulation: The nature of willpower and self-control. In: Higgins, E. T., & Kruglanski, A. W. (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles. New York, NY: Guilford, 1996: pp. 329-360.
79. Mischel, W., & Ebbesen, E. B. Attention in delay of gratification. J Pers Soc Psychol 1970; 16: 329-337.
80. Moore, B., Mischel, W., & Zeiss, A. Comparative effects of the reward stimulus and its cognitive representation in voluntary delay. J Pers Soc Psychol 1976; 34: 419-424.
81. Moskowitz, G. B. Preconscious effects of temporary goals on attention. J Exp Soc Psychol 2002; 38: 397-404.
82. Mowrer, O. H. Learning theory and behavior. New York, NY: Wiley, 1960.
83. Norem, J. K., & Cantor, N. Anticipatory and post hoc cushioning strategies: Optimism and defensive pessimism in "risky" situations. Cognit Ther Res 1986a; 10: 347-362.
84. Norem, J. K., & Cantor, N. Defensive pessimism: Harnessing anxiety as motivation. J Pers Soc Psychol 1986b; 51: 1208-1217.
85. Norem, J. K., & Illingworth, K. S. S. Strategy-dependent effects of reflecting on self and tasks: Some implications of optimism and defensive pessimism. J Pers Soc Psychol 1993; 65: 822-835.
86. Oettingen, G., Grant, H., Smith, P. K., Skinner, M., & Gollwitzer, P. M. Nonconscious goal pursuit: Acting in an explanatory vacuum. J Exp Soc Psychol 2006; 42: 668-675.
87. Penley, J. A., Tomaka, J., & Wiebe, J. S. The association of coping to physical and psychological health outcomes: A meta-analytic review. J Behav Med 2002; 25: 551-603.
88. Pervin, L. A. Goal concepts in personality and social psychology: A historical introduction. In: Pervin, L. A. (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989: pp. 1-17.
89. Pervin, L. A. A dynamic systems approach to personality. Eur Psychol 2001; 6: 172-176.
90. Scholer, A. A., & Higgins, E. T. Distinguishing levels of regulatory focus: An analysis using regulatory focus theory. In: Elliot, A. J. (Ed.), Handbook of approach and avoidance motivation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2008: pp. 489-504.
91. Scholer, A. A., Stroessner, S. J., & Higgins, E. T. Responding to negativity: How a risky tactic can serve a vigilant strategy. J Exp Soc Psychol 2008; 44: 767-774.
92. Shah, J. Y. The motivational looking glass: How significant others implicitly affect goal appraisals. J Pers Soc Psychol 2003; 85: 424-439.
93. Shah, J. Y., Friedman, R., & Kruglanski, A. W. Forgetting all else: On the antecedents and consequences of goal shielding. J Pers Soc Psychol 2002; 83: 1261-1280.
94. Shah, J., & Higgins, E. T. Regulatory concerns and appraisal efficiency: The general impact of promotion and prevention. J Pers Soc Psychol 2001; 80: 693-705.
95. Shah, J., Higgins, E. T., & Friedman, R. S. Performance incentives and means: How regulatory focus influences goal attainment. J Pers Soc Psychol 1998; 74: 285-293.
96. Shah, J. Y., & Kruglanski, A. W. Priming against your will: How accessible alternatives affect goal pursuit. J Exp Soc Psychol 2002; 83: 368-383.
97. Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. Not all personal goals are personal: Comparing autonomous and controlled reasons as predictors of effort and attainment. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 1998; 24: 531-543.
98. Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model. J Pers Soc Psychol 1999; 76: 482-497.
99. Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Kasser, T. The independent effects of goal contents and motives on well-being: It's both what you pursue and why you pursue it. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2004; 30: 475-486.
100. Showers, C. The motivational and emotional consequences of considering positive or negative possibilities for an upcoming event. J Pers Soc Psychol 1992; 63: 474-484.
101. Showers, C., & Cantor, N. Social cognition: A look at motivated strategies. Ann Rev Psychol 1985; 36: 275-305.
102. Skinner, B. F. Beyond freedom and dignity. New York, NY: Knopf, 1971.
103. Speilberger, C., & Vagg, P. Test anxiety: Theory, assessment, and treatment. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis, 1995.
104. Spiegel, S., Grant-Pillow, H., & Higgins, E. T. How regulatory fit enhances motivational strength during goal pursuit. Eur J Soc Psychol 2004; 34: 39-54.
105. Strauman, T. J., & Higgins, E. T. Automatic activation of self-discrepancies and emotional syndromes: When cognitive structures influence affect. J Pers Soc Psychol. Special Issue: Integrating personality and social psychology, 1987; 53: 1004-1014.
106. Strauman, T. J., & Higgins, E. T. Self-discrepancies as predictors of vulnerability to distinct syndromes of chronic emotional distress. J Pers 1988; 56: 685-707.
107. Swets, J. A. The relative operating characteristic in psychology. Science 1973; 182: 990-1000.
108. Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. J Pers 2004; 72: 271-322.
109. Taylor, S. E., & Aspinwall, L. G. Mediating and moderating processes in psychosocial stress: Appraisal, coping, resistance, and vulnerability. In Kaplan, H. B. (Ed.), Psychosocial stress: Perspectives on structure, theory, life-course, and methods. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1996: pp. 71-110.
110. Trope, Y., & Fishbach, A. Counteractive self-control in overcoming temptation. J Pers Soc Psychol 2000; 79: 493-506.
111. Vallacher, R. R., & Wegner, D. M. A theory of action identification. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1985.
112. Vallacher, R. R., & Wegner, D. M. What do people think they're doing? Action identification and human behavior. Psychol Rev 1987; 94: 3-15.
113. Vieth, A. Z., Strauman, T. J., Kolden, G. G., Woods, T. E., Michels, J. L., & Klein, M. H. Self-system theory (SST): A theory-based psychotherapy for depression. Clin Psychol Sci Pract 2003; 10: 245-268.
114. Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A.W. Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. J Pers Soc Psychol 1994; 67: 1049-1062.