Neuroimaging of Addiction

Imaging of the Human Brain in Health and Disease

Volumn , Issue , 2014, Pages 1-26

  Volkow, Nora D ^a   Wang, Gene Jack ^b   Fowler, Joanna S ^b   Tomasi, Dardo ^c   Baler, Ruben ^a  

^a Natonal Institute on Drug Abuse   (United States)

^b BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^c NATIONAL INSTITUTE ON ALCOHOL ABUSE AND ALCOHOLISM   (United States)

Author keywords

Addiction; Diffusion tensor imaging; Dopamine; Methamphetamine; MRI; Neuroimaging; Nicotine; NMR; Prefrontal cortex; Opioid

Indexed keywords

EID: 84920844095     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-418677-4.00001-4     Document Type: Chapter

References (110)

1. Bechara A., Damasio A.R., Damasio H., Anderson S.W. Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition 1994, 50(1-3):7-15.
2. Bechara A., Dolan S., Denburg N., Hindes A., Anderson S.W., Nathan P.E. Decision-making deficits, linked to a dysfunctional ventromedial prefrontal cortex, revealed in alcohol and stimulant abusers. Neuropsychologia 2001, 39(4):376-389.
3. Bendszus M., Weijers H.G., Wiesbeck G., Warmuth-Metz M., Bartsch A.J., Engels S., Boning J., Solymosi L. Sequential MR imaging and proton MR spectroscopy in patients who underwent recent detoxification for chronic alcoholism: correlation with clinical and neuropsychological data. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol 2001, 22(10):1926-1932.
4. Berman B.D., Horovitz S.G., Venkataraman G., Hallett M. Self-modulation of primary motor cortex activity with motor and motor imagery tasks using real-time fMRI-based neurofeedback. Neuroimage 2011.
5. Biswal B.B., Mennes M., Zuo X.N., Gohel S., Kelly C., Smith S.M., Beckmann C.F., Adelstein J.S., Buckner R.L., Colcombe S., Dogonowski A.M., Ernst M., Fair D., Hampson M., Hoptman M.J., Hyde J.S., Kiviniemi V.J., Kotter R., Li S.J., Lin C.P., Lowe M.J., Mackay C., Madden D.J., Madsen K.H., Margulies D.S., Mayberg H.S., McMahon K., Monk C.S., Mostofsky S.H., Nagel B.J., Pekar J.J., Peltier S.J., Petersen S.E., Riedl V., Rombouts S.A., Rypma B., Schlaggar B.L., Schmidt S., Seidler R.D., Siegle G.J., Sorg C., Teng G.J., Veijola J., Villringer A., Walter M., Wang L., Weng X.C., Whitfield-Gabrieli S., Williamson P., Windischberger C., Zang Y.F., Zhang H.Y., Castellanos F.X., Milham M.P. Toward discovery science of human brain function. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107(10):4734-4739.
6. Bolla K.I., Eldreth D.A., London E.D., Kiehl K.A., Mouratidis M., Contoreggi C., Matochik J.A., Kurian V., Cadet J.L., Kimes A.S., Funderburk F.R., Ernst M. Orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in abstinent cocaine abusers performing a decision-making task. Neuroimage 2003, 19(3):1085-1094.
7. Brand A., Richter-Landsberg C., Leibfritz D. Multinuclear NMR studies on the energy metabolism of glial and neuronal cells. Dev. Neurosci 1993, 15(3-5):289-298.
8. Breiter H.C., Gollub R.L., Weisskoff R.M., Kennedy D.N., Makris N., Berke J.D., Goodman J.M., Kantor H.L., Gastfriend D.R., Riorden J.P., Mathew R.T., Rosen B.R., Hyman S.E. Acute effects of cocaine on human brain activity and emotion. Neuron 1997, 19(3):591-611.
9. Breiter H.C., Rosen B.R. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of brain reward circuitry in the human. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci 1999, 877:523-547.
10. Brodie J.D., Case B.G., Figueroa E., Dewey S.L., Robinson J.A., Wanderling J.A., Laska E.M. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of vigabatrin for the treatment of cocaine dependence in Mexican parolees. Am. J. Psychiatry 2009, 166(11):1269-1277.
11. Brodie J.D., Figueroa E., Dewey S.L. Treating cocaine addiction: from preclinical to clinical trial experience with gamma-vinyl GABA. Synapse 2003, 50(3):261-265.
12. Brodie J.D., Figueroa E., Laska E.M., Dewey S.L. Safety and efficacy of gamma-vinyl GABA (GVG) for the treatment of methamphetamine and/or cocaine addiction. Synapse 2005, 55(2):122-125.
13. Brody A.L., Olmstead R.E., London E.D., Farahi J., Meyer J.H., Grossman P., Lee G.S., Huang J., Hahn E.L., Mandelkern M.A. Smoking-induced ventral striatum dopamine release. Am. J. Psychiatry 2004, 161(7):1211-1218.
14. Castagnoli K., Steyn S.J., Magnin G., Van Der Schyf C.J., Fourie I., Khalil A., Castagnoli N. Studies on the interactions of tobacco leaf and tobacco smoke constituents and monoamine oxidase. Neurotox. Res 2002, 4(2):151-160.
15. Chang L., Cloak C., Yakupov R., Ernst T. Combined and independent effects of chronic marijuana use and HIV on brain metabolites. J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2006, 1(1):65-76.
16. Chang L., Ernst T., Speck O., Grob C.S. Additive effects of HIV and chronic methamphetamine use on brain metabolite abnormalities. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162(2):361-369.
17. Chang L., Ernst T., Strickland T., Mehringer C.M. Gender effects on persistent cerebral metabolite changes in the frontal lobes of abstinent cocaine users. Am. J. Psychiatry 1999, 156(5):716-722.
18. Cowan R.L., Joers J.M., Dietrich M.S. N-acetylaspartate (NAA) correlates inversely with cannabis use in a frontal language processing region of neocortex in MDMA (Ecstasy) polydrug users: a 3 T magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav 2009, 92(1):105-110.
19. Damoiseaux J.S., Rombouts S.A., Barkhof F., Scheltens P., Stam C.J., Smith S.M., Beckmann C.F. Consistent resting-state networks across healthy subjects. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103(37):13848-13853.
20. Daurignac E., Toga A., Jones D., Aronen H., Hommer D., Jemigan T., Krystal J., Mathalon D. Applications of morphometric and diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging to the study of brain abnormalities in the alcoholism spectrum. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res 2005, 29(1):159-166.
21. De Stefano N., Matthews P.M., Arnold D.L. Reversible decreases in N-acetylaspartate after acute brain injury. Magn. Reson. Med 1995, 34(5):721-727.
22. De Vries T.J., Shaham Y., Homberg J.R., Crombag H., Schuurman K., Dieben J., Vanderschuren L.J., Schoffelmeer A.N. A cannabinoid mechanism in relapse to cocaine seeking. Nat. Med 2001, 7(10):1151-1154.
23. Di Chiara G. Drug addiction as dopamine-dependent associative learning disorder. Eur. J. Pharmacol 1999, 375(1-3):13-30.
24. Di Chiara G., Imperato A. Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1988, 85(14):5274-5278.
25. Di Ciano P., Everitt B.J. The GABA(B) receptor agonist baclofen attenuates cocaine- and heroin-seeking behavior by rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003, 28(3):510-518.
26. Drevets W.C., Gautier C., Price J.C., Kupfer D.J., Kinahan P.E., Grace A.A., Price J.L., Mathis C.A. Amphetamine-induced dopamine release in human ventral striatum correlates with euphoria. Biol. Psychiatry 2001, 49(2):81-96.
27. Eslinger P.J., Grattan L.M., Damasio H., Damasio A.R. Developmental consequences of childhood frontal lobe damage. Arch. Neurol 1992, 49(7):764-769.
28. Fein G., Di Sclafani V., Cardenas V.A., Goldmann H., Tolou-Shams M., Meyerhoff D.J. Cortical gray matter loss in treatment-naive alcohol dependent individuals. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res 2002, 26(4):558-564.
29. Fowler J.S., Ding Y.S., Volkow N.D. Radiotracers for positron emission tomography imaging. Semin. Nucl. Med 2003, 33(1):14-27.
30. Fowler J.S., Ido T. Initial and subsequent approach for the synthesis of 18FDG. Semin. Nucl. Med 2002, 32(1):6-12.
31. Fowler J.S., Logan J., Wang G.J., Volkow N.D. Monoamine oxidase and cigarette smoking. Neurotoxicology 2003, 24(1):75-82.
32. Fowler J.S., Logan J., Wang G.J., Volkow N.D., Telang F., Zhu W., Franceschi D., Pappas N., Ferrieri R., Shea C., Garza V., Xu Y., Schlyer D., Gatley S.J., Ding Y.S., Alexoff D., Warner D., Netusil N., Carter P., Jayne M., King P., Vaska P. Low monoamine oxidase B in peripheral organs in smokers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100(20):11600-11605.
33. Fowler J.S., Logan J., Wang G.J., Volkow N.D., Telang F., Zhu W., Franceschi D., Shea C., Garza V., Xu Y., Ding Y.S., Alexoff D., Warner D., Netusil N., Carter P., Jayne M., King P., Vaska P. Comparison of monoamine oxidase a in peripheral organs in nonsmokers and smokers. J. Nucl. Med 2005, 46(9):1414-1420.
34. Fowler J.S., Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Ding Y.S., Dewey S.L. PET and drug research and development. J. Nucl. Med 1999, 40(7):1154-1163.
35. Fowler J.S., Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Pappas N., Logan J., MacGregor R., Alexoff D., Shea C., Schlyer D., Wolf A.P., Warner D., Zezulkova I., Cilento R. Inhibition of monoamine oxidase B in the brains of smokers. Nature 1996, 379(6567):733-736.
36. Fowler J.S., Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Pappas N., Logan J., Shea C., Alexoff D., MacGregor R.R., Schlyer D.J., Zezulkova I., Wolf A.P. Brain monoamine oxidase A inhibition in cigarette smokers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1996, 93(24):14065-14069.
37. George T.P., Vessicchio J.C., Termine A., Jatlow P.I., Kosten T.R., O'Malley S.S. A preliminary placebo-controlled trial of selegiline hydrochloride for smoking cessation. Biol. Psychiatry 2003, 53(2):136-143.
38. Gilmore J.H., Lin W., Gerig G. Fetal and neonatal brain development. Am. J. Psychiatry 2006, 163(12):2046.
39. Goldstein R.Z., Volkow N.D. Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. Am. J. Psychiatry 2002, 159(10):1642-1652.
40. Grabowski J., Roache J.D., Schmitz J.M., Rhoades H., Creson D., Korszun A. Replacement medication for cocaine dependence: methylphenidate. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol 1997, 17(6):485-488.
41. Gruber S.A., Tzilos G.K., Silveri M.M., Pollack M., Renshaw P.F., Kaufman M.J., Yurgelun-Todd D.A. Methadone maintenance improves cognitive performance after two months of treatment. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol 2006, 14(2):157-164.
42. Gu H., Salmeron B.J., Ross T.J., Geng X., Zhan W., Stein E.A., Yang Y. Mesocorticolimbic circuits are impaired in chronic cocaine users as demonstrated by resting-state functional connectivity. Neuroimage 2011, 53(2):593-601.
43. Guillem K., Vouillac C., Azar M.R., Parsons L.H., Koob G.F., Cador M., Stinus L. Monoamine oxidase inhibition dramatically increases the motivation to self-administer nicotine in rats. J. Neurosci 2005, 25(38):8593-8600.
44. Guillem K., Vouillac C., Azar M.R., Parsons L.H., Koob G.F., Cador M., Stinus L. Monoamine oxidase A rather than monoamine oxidase B inhibition increases nicotine reinforcement in rats. Eur. J. Neurosci 2006, 24(12):3532-3540.
45. Gur R.E., Maany V., Mozley P.D., Swanson C., Bilker W., Gur R.C. Subcortical MRI volumes in neuroleptic-naive and treated patients with schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 1998, 155(12):1711-1717.
46. Halldin C., Gulyas B., Langer O., Farde L. Brain radioligands-state of the art and new trends. Q. J. Nucl. Med 2001, 45(2):139-152.
47. Hariri A.R., Mattay V.S., Tessitore A., Kolachana B., Fera F., Goldman D., Egan M.F., Weinberger D.R. Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science 2002, 297(5580):400-403.
48. Hetherington H.P., Telang F., Pan J.W., Sammi M., Schuhlein D., Molina P., Volkow N.D. Spectroscopic imaging of the uptake kinetics of human brain ethanol. Magn. Reson. Med 1999, 42(6):1019-1026.
49. Hill S.Y., De Bellis M.D., Keshavan M.S., Lowers L., Shen S., Hall J., Pitts T. Right amygdala volume in adolescent and young adult offspring from families at high risk for developing alcoholism. Biol. Psychiatry 2001, 49(11):894-905.
50. Huang H., Zhang J., Wakana S., Zhang W., Ren T., Richards L.J., Yarowsky P., Donohue P., Graham E., van Zijl P.C., Mori S. White and gray matter development in human fetal, newborn and pediatric brains. Neuroimage 2006, 33(1):27-38.
51. Jacobsen L.K., Giedd J.N., Gottschalk C., Kosten T.R., Krystal J.H. Quantitative morphology of the caudate and putamen in patients with cocaine dependence. Am. J. Psychiatry 2001, 158(3):486-489.
52. Jernigan T.L., Gamst A.C., Archibald S.L., Fennema-Notestine C., Mindt M.R., Marcotte T.D., Heaton R.K., Ellis R.J., Grant I. Effects of methamphetamine dependence and HIV infection on cerebral morphology. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162(8):1461-1472.
53. Julian M.D., Martin A.B., Cuellar B., Rodriguez De Fonseca F., Navarro M., Moratalla R., Garcia-Segura L.M. Neuroanatomical relationship between type 1 cannabinoid receptors and dopaminergic systems in the rat basal ganglia. Neuroscience 2003, 119(1):309-318.
54. Kaufman J.N., Ross T.J., Stein E.A., Garavan H. Cingulate hypoactivity in cocaine users during a GO-NOGO task as revealed by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. J. Neurosci 2003, 23(21):7839-7843.
55. Kelly C., Zuo X.N., Gotimer K., Cox C.L., Lynch L., Brock D., Imperati D., Garavan H., Rotrosen J., Castellanos F.X., Milham M.P. Reduced interhemispheric resting state functional connectivity in cocaine addiction. Biol. Psychiatry 2011, 69(7):684-692.
56. Khalil A.A., Steyn S., Castagnoli N. Isolation and characterization of a monoamine oxidase inhibitor from tobacco leaves. Chem. Res. Toxicol 2000, 13(1):31-35.
57. Kim S.J., Lyoo I.K., Hwang J., Chung A., Hoon Sung Y., Kim J., Kwon D.H., Chang K.H., Renshaw P.F. Prefrontal grey-matter changes in short-term and long-term abstinent methamphetamine abusers. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol 2006, 9(2):221-228.
58. Kosten T.R., Scanley B.E., Tucker K.A., Oliveto A., Prince C., Sinha R., Potenza M.N., Skudlarski P., Wexler B.E. Cue-induced brain activity changes and relapse in cocaine-dependent patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006, 31(3):644-650.
59. Kreek M.J., LaForge K.S., Butelman E. Pharmacotherapy of addictions. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov 2002, 1(9):710-726.
60. Kufahl P.R., Li Z., Risinger R.C., Rainey C.J., Wu G., Bloom A.S., Li S.J. Neural responses to acute cocaine administration in the human brain detected by fMRI. Neuroimage 2005, 28(4):904-914.
61. Kung H.F., Kung M.P., Choi S.R. Radiopharmaceuticals for single-photon emission computed tomography brain imaging. Semin. Nucl. Med 2003, 33(1):2-13.
62. Laruelle M., Abi-Dargham A., van Dyck C.H., Rosenblatt W., Zea-Ponce Y., Zoghbi S.S., Baldwin R.M., Charney D.S., Hoffer P.B., Kung H.F., et al. SPECT imaging of striatal dopamine release after amphetamine challenge. J. Nucl. Med 1995, 36(7):1182-1190.
63. Leshner A.I. Addiction is a brain disease, and it matters. Science 1997, 278(5335):45-47.
64. Liu X., Matochik J.A., Cadet J.L., London E.D. Smaller volume of prefrontal lobe in polysubstance abusers: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuropsychopharmacology 1998, 18(4):243-252.
65. Makris N., Gasic G.P., Seidman L.J., Goldstein J.M., Gastfriend D.R., Elman I., Albaugh M.D., Hodge S.M., Ziegler D.A., Sheahan F.S., Caviness V.S., Tsuang M.T., Kennedy D.N., Hyman S.E., Rosen B.R., Breiter H.C. Decreased absolute amygdala volume in cocaine addicts. Neuron 2004, 44(4):729-740.
66. Mann K., Agartz I., Harper C., Shoaf S., Rawlings R.R., Momenan R., Hommer D.W., Pfefferbaum A., Sullivan E.V., Anton R.F., Drobes D.J., George M.S., Bares R., Machulla H.J., Mundle G., Reimold M., Heinz A. Neuroimaging in alcoholism: ethanol and brain damage. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res 2001, 25(5 Suppl. ISBRA):104S-109S.
67. Matochik J.A., London E.D., Eldreth D.A., Cadet J.L., Bolla K.I. Frontal cortical tissue composition in abstinent cocaine abusers: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroimage 2003, 19(3):1095-1102.
68. Mattay V.S., Goldberg T.E., Fera F., Hariri A.R., Tessitore A., Egan M.F., Kolachana B., Callicott J.H., Weinberger D.R. Catechol O-methyltransferase val158-met genotype and individual variation in the brain response to amphetamine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100(10):6186-6191.
69. Morens D.M., Grandinetti A., Reed D., White L.R., Ross G.W. Cigarette smoking and protection from Parkinson's disease: false association or etiologic clue?. Neurology 1995, 45(6):1041-1051.
70. O'Neill J., Cardenas V.A., Meyerhoff D.J. Effects of abstinence on the brain: quantitative magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging in chronic alcohol abuse. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res 2001, 25(11):1673-1682.
71. Paulus M.P., Hozack N.E., Zauscher B.E., Frank L., Brown G.G., Braff D.L., Schuckit M.A. Behavioral and functional neuroimaging evidence for prefrontal dysfunction in methamphetamine-dependent subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002, 26(1):53-63.
72. Paulus M.P., Tapert S.F., Schuckit M.A. Neural activation patterns of methamphetamine-dependent subjects during decision making predict relapse. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2005, 62(7):761-768.
73. Pfefferbaum A., Sullivan E.V. Disruption of brain white matter microstructure by excessive intracellular and extracellular fluid in alcoholism: evidence from diffusion tensor imaging. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005, 30(2):423-432.
74. Pfefferbaum A., Sullivan E.V., Mathalon D.H., Shear P.K., Rosenbloom M.J., Lim K.O. Longitudinal changes in magnetic resonance imaging brain volumes in abstinent and relapsed alcoholics. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res 1995, 19(5):1177-1191.
75. Pfefferbaum A., Sullivan E.V., Rosenbloom M.J., Mathalon D.H., Lim K.O. A controlled study of cortical gray matter and ventricular changes in alcoholic men over a 5-year interval. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1998, 55(10):905-912.
76. Rae C., Lee M.A., Dixon R.M., Blamire A.M., Thompson C.H., Styles P., Talcott J., Richardson A.J., Stein J.F. Metabolic abnormalities in developmental dyslexia detected by 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Lancet 1998, 351(9119):1849-1852.
77. Raichle M.E., Martin W.R., Herscovitch P., Mintun M.A., Markham J. Brain blood flow measured with intravenous H2(15)O. II. Implementation and validation. J. Nucl. Med 1983, 24(9):790-798.
78. Raichle M.E., Snyder A.Z. A default mode of brain function: a brief history of an evolving idea. Neuroimage 2007, 37(4):1083-1090. discussion 1097-1089.
79. Rinne J.O., Laihinen A., Nagren K., Ruottinen H., Ruotsalainen U., Rinne U.K. PET examination of the monoamine transporter with [11C]beta-CIT and [11C]beta-CFT in early Parkinson's disease. Synapse 1995, 21(2):97-103.
80. Risinger R.C., Salmeron B.J., Ross T.J., Amen S.L., Sanfilipo M., Hoffmann R.G., Bloom A.S., Garavan H., Stein E.A. Neural correlates of high and craving during cocaine self-administration using BOLD fMRI. Neuroimage 2005, 26(4):1097-1108.
81. Ross B., Kreis R., Ernst T. Clinical tools for the 90s: magnetic resonance spectroscopy and metabolite imaging. Eur. J. Radiol 1992, 14(2):128-140.
82. Schlaepfer T.E., Lancaster E., Heidbreder R., Strain E.C., Kosel M., Fisch H.U., Pearlson G.D. Decreased frontal white-matter volume in chronic substance abuse. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol 2006, 9(2):147-153.
83. Sekine Y., Minabe Y., Ouchi Y., Takei N., Iyo M., Nakamura K., Suzuki K., Tsukada H., Okada H., Yoshikawa E., Futatsubashi M., Mori N. Association of dopamine transporter loss in the orbitofrontal and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices with methamphetamine-related psychiatric symptoms. Am. J. Psychiatry 2003, 160(9):1699-1701.
84. Shearer J. The principles of agonist pharmacotherapy for psychostimulant dependence. Drug Alcohol Rev 2008, 27(3):301-308.
85. Silveri M.M., Pollack M.H., Diaz C.I., Nassar L.E., Mendelson J.H., Yurgelun-Todd D.A., Renshaw P.F., Kaufman M.J. Cerebral phosphorus metabolite and transverse relaxation time abnormalities in heroin-dependent subjects at onset of methadone maintenance treatment. Psychiatry Res 2004, 131(3):217-226.
86. Smith L.M., Chang L., Yonekura M.L., Gilbride K., Kuo J., Poland R.E., Walot I., Ernst T. Brain proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy and imaging in children exposed to cocaine in utero. Pediatrics 2001, 107(2):227-231.
87. Smith L.M., Chang L., Yonekura M.L., Grob C., Osborn D., Ernst T. Brain proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in children exposed to methamphetamine in utero. Neurology 2001, 57(2):255-260.
88. Stapleton J.M., Morgan M.J., Phillips R.L., Wong D.F., Yung B.C., Shaya E.K., Dannals R.F., Liu X., Grayson R.L., London E.D. Cerebral glucose utilization in polysubstance abuse. Neuropsychopharmacology 1995, 13(1):21-31.
89. Thompson P.M., Hayashi K.M., Simon S.L., Geaga J.A., Hong M.S., Sui Y., Lee J.Y., Toga A.W., Ling W., London E.D. Structural abnormalities in the brains of human subjects who use methamphetamine. J. Neurosci 2004, 24(26):6028-6036.
90. Volkow N.D., Chang L., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., Ding Y.S., Sedler M., Logan J., Franceschi D., Gatley J., Hitzemann R., Gifford A., Wong C., Pappas N. Low level of brain dopamine D2 receptors in methamphetamine abusers: association with metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex. Am. J. Psychiatry 2001, 158(12):2015-2021.
91. Volkow N.D., Chang L., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., Leonido-Yee M., Franceschi D., Sedler M.J., Gatley S.J., Hitzemann R., Ding Y.S., Logan J., Wong C., Miller E.N. Association of dopamine transporter reduction with psychomotor impairment in methamphetamine abusers. Am. J. Psychiatry 2001, 158(3):377-382.
92. Volkow N.D., Ding Y.S., Fowler J.S., Wang G.J., Logan J., Gatley S.J., Schlyer D.J., Pappas N. A new PET ligand for the dopamine transporter: studies in the human brain. J. Nucl. Med 1995, 36(12):2162-2168.
93. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Gatley S.J., Logan J., Wang G.J., Ding Y.S., Dewey S. PET evaluation of the dopamine system of the human brain. J. Nucl. Med 1996, 37(7):1242-1256.
94. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Wang G.J. The addicted human brain: insights from imaging studies. J. Clin. Invest 2003, 111(10):1444-1451.
95. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Wang G.J. Positron emission tomography and single-photon emission computed tomography in substance abuse research. Semin. Nucl. Med 2003, 33(2):114-128.
96. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Wang G.J., Hitzemann R., Logan J., Schlyer D.J., Dewey S.L., Wolf A.P. Decreased dopamine D2 receptor availability is associated with reduced frontal metabolism in cocaine abusers. Synapse 1993, 14(2):169-177.
97. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Wang G.J., Swanson J.M., Telang F. Dopamine in drug abuse and addiction: results of imaging studies and treatment implications. Arch. Neurol 2007, 64(11):1575-1579.
98. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Wolf A.P., Hitzemann R., Dewey S., Bendriem B., Alpert R., Hoff A. Changes in brain glucose metabolism in cocaine dependence and withdrawal. Am. J. Psychiatry 1991, 148(5):621-626.
99. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Wolf A.P., Schlyer D., Shiue C.Y., Alpert R., Dewey S.L., Logan J., Bendriem B., Christman D., et al. Effects of chronic cocaine abuse on postsynaptic dopamine receptors. Am. J. Psychiatry 1990, 147(6):719-724.
100. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Fischman M.W., Foltin R.W., Fowler J.S., Abumrad N.N., Vitkun S., Logan J., Gatley S.J., Pappas N., Hitzemann R., Shea C.E. Relationship between subjective effects of cocaine and dopamine transporter occupancy. Nature 1997, 386(6627):827-830.
101. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., Logan J., Gatley S.J., Wong C., Hitzemann R., Pappas N.R. Reinforcing effects of psychostimulants in humans are associated with increases in brain dopamine and occupancy of D(2) receptors. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther 1999, 291(1):409-415.
102. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., Logan J., Hitzemann R., Ding Y.S., Pappas N., Shea C., Piscani K. Decreases in dopamine receptors but not in dopamine transporters in alcoholics. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res 1996, 20(9):1594-1598.
103. Wang G.J., Volkow N.D., Chang L., Miller E., Sedler M., Hitzemann R., Zhu W., Logan J., Ma Y., Fowler J.S. Partial recovery of brain metabolism in methamphetamine abusers after protracted abstinence. Am. J. Psychiatry 2004, 161(2):242-248.
104. Wang G.J., Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Logan J., Abumrad N.N., Hitzemann R.J., Pappas N.S., Pascani K. Dopamine D2 receptor availability in opiate-dependent subjects before and after naloxone-precipitated withdrawal. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997, 16(2):174-182.
105. Warner T.D., Behnke M., Eyler F.D., Padgett K., Leonard C., Hou W., Garvan C.W., Schmalfuss I.M., Blackband S.J. Diffusion tensor imaging of frontal white matter and executive functioning in cocaine-exposed children. Pediatrics 2006, 118(5):2014-2024.
106. Wexler B.E., Gottschalk C.H., Fulbright R.K., Prohovnik I., Lacadie C.M., Rounsaville B.J., Gore J.C. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of cocaine craving. Am. J. Psychiatry 2001, 158(1):86-95.
107. Wong D.F., Yung B., Dannals R.F., Shaya E.K., Ravert H.T., Chen C.A., Chan B., Folio T., Scheffel U., Ricaurte G.A., et al. In vivo imaging of baboon and human dopamine transporters by positron emission tomography using [11C]WIN 35,428. Synapse 1993, 15(2):130-142.
108. Wrase J., Makris N., Braus D.F., Mann K., Smolka M.N., Kennedy D.N., Caviness V.S., Hodge S.M., Tang L., Albaugh M., Ziegler D.A., Davis O.C., Kissling C., Schumann G., Breiter H.C., Heinz A. Amygdala volume associated with alcohol abuse relapse and craving. Am. J. Psychiatry 2008, 165(9):1179-1184.
109. Yang S., Salmeron B.J., Ross T.J., Xi Z.X., Stein E.A., Yang Y. Lower glutamate levels in rostral anterior cingulate of chronic cocaine users - a (1)H-MRS study using TE-averaged PRESS at 3 T with an optimized quantification strategy. Psychiatry Res 2009, 174(3):171-176.
110. Zubieta J.K., Gorelick D.A., Stauffer R., Ravert H.T., Dannals R.F., Frost J.J. Increased mu opioid receptor binding detected by PET in cocaine-dependent men is associated with cocaine craving. Nat. Med 1996, 2(11):1225-1229.