Reproductive biology of Cactaceae

Desert Plants: Biology and Biotechnology

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 197-230

  Mandujano, María Del Carmen ^a   Carrillo Angeles, Israel ^a   Martínez Peralta, Concepción ^a   Golubov, Jordan ^b  

^a UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL AUTÓNOMA DE MÉXICO   (Mexico)

^b DEPARTAMENTO DE SISTEMAS BIOLÓGICOS   (Mexico)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84920094278     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-02550-1_10     Document Type: Chapter

References (139)

1. Anderson EF (2001) The cactus family. Timber, Portland, OR.
2. Anthony M (1954) Ecology in the Opuntiae in the Big Bend region of Texas. Ecology 35:334-347.
3. Arias S, Terrazas T, Cameron K (2003) Phylogenetic analysis of Pachycereus (Cactaceae, Pachycereeae) based on chloroplast and nuclear DNA sequences. Syst Bot 28:547-557.
4. Arias S, Guzmán U, Mandujano MC, Soto M, Golubov J (2005a) Las especies Mexicanas de Cactáceas en riesgo de extinción: una comparación entre los listados NOM-ECOL-2001 (México), la lista roja (UICN) y CITES. Cact Suc Mex 50:100-125.
5. Arias S, Terrazas T, Arreola-Nava HJ, Vázquez-Sánchez M, Cameron KM (2005b) Phylogenetic relationships in Peniocereus (Cactaceae) inferred from plastid DNA sequence data. J Plant Res 118:317-328.
6. Badano E, Schlumpberger B (2001) Sistema de cruzamiento y estimaciones en la eficiencia de polinización sobre Trichocereus pasacana (Cactaceae) en dos poblaciones del Noroeste Argentino. Gayana Bot 58:115-122.
7. Barrett SCH (2003) Mating strategies in flowering plants: The outcrossing-selfing paradigm and beyond. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 358:991-1004.
8. Barrett SCH, Eckert CG (1990) Variation and evolution of mating systems in seed plants. In: Kawano S (ed) Biological approaches and evolutionary trends in plants. Academic, London, pp 229-254.
9. Barrett SCH, Harder LD, Worley AC (1996) The comparative biology of pollination and mating in flowering plants. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 351:1271-1280.
10. Bowers JE (2002) Flowering patterns and reproductive ecology of Mammillaria grahamii (Cactaceae), a common, small cactus in the Sonoran Desert. Madroño 49:201-206.
11. Boyle TH (1997) The genetics of self-incompatibility in the genus Schlumbergera (Cactaceae). J Hered 88:209-214.
12. Boyle TH (2003) Identification of self-incompatibility groups in Hatiora and Schlumbergera (Cactaceae). Sex Plant Reprod 16:151-155.
13. Boyle TH, Anderson EF (2002) Biodiversity and conservation. In: Nobel PS (ed) Cacti: biology and uses. University of California Press, Berkeley, pp 125-141.
14. Boyle TH, Idnurm A (2001) Physiology and genetics of self-incompatibility in Echinopsis chamaecereus (Cactaceae). Sex Plant Reprod 13:323-327.
15. Bravo-Hollis H (1978) Las cactáceas de México, vol 1. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
16. Brown AHD (1990) Genetic characterization of plant mating systems. In: Brown AHD, Clegg MT, Kahler AL, Weir BS (eds) Plant population genetics, breeding, and genetic resources. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA, pp 143-162
17. Bullock SH (1985) Breeding systems in the flora of a tropical deciduous forest in Mexico. Biotropica 17:287-301.
18. Butterworth CA, Wallace RS (2004) Phylogenetic studies of Mammillaria (Cactaceae) insights from chloroplast sequence variation and hypothesis testing using the parametric bootstrap. Am J Bot 91:1086-1098.
19. Carrillo-Angeles IG (2006) Distribución espacial de clones de Ferocactus robustus: consecuencias sobre la reproducción sexual. MSc Thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
20. Carson HL, Templeton AR (1984) Genetic revolutions in relation to speciation phenomena: The founding of new populations. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 15:97-131.
21. Casas A, Valiente-Banuet A, Rojas-Martínez A, Dávila P (1999) Reproductive biology and the process of domestication of the columnar cactus Stenocereus stellatus in Central Mexico. Am J Bot 86:534-542.
22. Charlesworth D, Charlesworth B (1979) The evolutionary genetics of sexual systems in flowering plants. Proc R Soc Lond B 205:513-530.
23. Charlesworth D, Charlesworth B (1987) Inbreeding depression and its evolutionary consequences. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 18:237-268.
24. Charpentier A (2002) Consequences of clonal growth for plant mating. Evol Ecol 15:521-530.
25. Clark-Tapia R (2000) Estructura genética de dos cactáceas columnares del Desierto Sonorense: Stenocereus gummosus y S. eruca (Cactaceae). MSc Thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
26. Clark-Tapia R, Molina-Freaner F (2004) Reproductive ecology of the rare clonal cactus Stenocereus eruca in the Sonoran desert. Plant Syst Evol 247:155-164.
27. Clark-Tapia R, Alfonso-Corrado C, Mandujano MC, Molina-Freaner F (2006) Reproductive consequences of clonal growth in Stenocereus eruca, a rare clonal cactus of the Sonoran Desert. Evol Ecol 20:131-142.
28. Cruz M, Casas A (2002) Morphological variation and reproductive biology of Polaskia chende (Cactaceae) under domestication in Central Mexico. J Arid Environ 51:561-576.
29. Dafni A (1992) Pollination ecology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
30. Dar S, del Coro Arizmendi M, Valiente-Banuet A (2006) Diurnal and nocturnal pollination of Marginatocereus marginatus (Pachycereeae: Cactaceae) in Central Mexico. Ann Bot 97:423-427.
31. Darwin C (1859) On the origin of species. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
32. Darwin C (1876) The effects of cross and self-fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. Adamant Media. Boston, MA.
33. De Nettancourt D (1997) Incompatibility in angiosperms. Sex Plant Reprod 10:185-199.
34. De Nettancourt D (2001) Incompatibility and incongruity in wild and cultivated plants. Springer, Berlin.
35. Del Castillo R (1994) Polinización y otros aspectos de la biología floral de Ferocactus histrix. Cact Suc Mex 39:36-42.
36. Del Castillo R, González-Espinosa M (1988) Una interpretación evolutiva del polimorfismo sexual de Opuntia robusta (Cactaceae). Agrociencia 71:184-196.
37. Dellaporta SL, Calderon-Urrea A (1993) Sex determination in flowering plants. Plant Cell 5:1241-1251.
38. Edwards E, Nyffeler JR, Donoghue MJ (2005) Basal cactus phylogeny: Implications of Pereskia (Cactaceae) paraphyly for the transition to the cactus life form. Am J Bot 92:1177-1188.
39. Eguiarte LE, Duvall MR, Learn GH Jr, Clegg MT (1994) The systematic status of the Agavaceae and Nolinaceae and related Asparagales in the monocotyledons: An analysis based on the rbcL gene sequence. Bol Soc Bot Mex 54:35-56.
40. Esparza-Olguín L, Valverde T, Mandujano MC (2005) Comparative demographic analysis of three Neobuxbaumia species (Cactaceae) with differing degree of rarity. Popul Ecol 47:229-245.
41. Ferrer MM, Good-Avila SV (2007) Macrophylogenetic analyses of the gain and loss of selfincompatibility in the Asteraceae. New Phytol 173:401-414.
42. Fleming TH, Holland JN (1998) The evolution of obligate pollination mutualisms: Senita cactus and senita moth. Oecologia 114:368-375.
43. Fleming TH, Maurice S, Hamrick JL (1998) Geographic variation in the breeding system and the evolutionary stability of trioecy in Pachycereus pringlei (Cactaceae). Evol Ecol 12:279-289.
44. Fleming T, Sahley C, Holland J, Nassar J, Hamrick J (2001) Sonoran desert columnar cacti and the evolution of generalized pollination systems. Ecol Monogr 71:511-530.
45. Franklin-Tong VE, Franklin FCH (2003) The different mechanisms of gametophytic self-incompatibility. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 358:1025-1032.
46. Gibson AC, Nobel PS (1986) The cactus primer. Harvard University Press, Boston, MA.
47. Good-Avila S, Souza V, Gaut SB, Eguiarte LE (2006) Timing and rate of speciation in Agave (Agavaceae). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:9124-9129.
48. Grant V, Grant KA (1971) Dynamics of clonal microspecies in cholla cactus. Evolution 25:144-155.
49. Grant V, Grant KA (1979) Pollination of Opuntia basilaris and O. littoralis. Plant Syst Evol 132:321-325.
50. Grant V, Hurd P (1979) Pollination of the southwestern opuntias. Plant Syst Evol 133:15-28.
51. Grant V, Grant KA, Hurd PD Jr (1979) Pollination of Opuntia lindheimeri and related species. Plant Syst Evol 132:313-320.
52. Guzmán U, Arias S, Dávila P (2003) Catálogo de Cactáceas Mexicanas. CONABIO UNAM, Mexico.
53. Hamrick JL, Godt MJ (1989) Allozyme diversity in plant species. In: Brown AHD, Clegg MT, Kahler AL, Weir BS (eds) Plant population genetics, breeding and germplasm resources. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA, pp 43-63.
54. Hamrick JL, Nason JD, Fleming TH, Nassar JM (2002) Genetic diversity in columnar cacti. In: Fleming TH, Valiente-Banuet A (eds) Evolution, ecology and conservation of columnar cacti and their mutualists. University of Arizona Press, Tuscon, AZ, pp 122-133.
55. Handel SN (1985) The intrusion of clonal growth patterns on plant breeding system. Am Nat 125:367-384.
56. Harvey PH, Pagel MD (1991) The comparative method in evolutionary biology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
57. Hernández-Rosas L (2006) Variación genética y producción de semillas en poblaciones de Cylindropuntia bigelovii con diferente ploidía. MS Thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
58. Hershkovitz MA, Zimmer EA (1997) On the evolutionary origins of the cacti. Taxon 46:217-232.
59. Heslop-Harrison Y, Shivanna KR (1977) The receptive surface of the angiosperm stigma. Ann Bot 41:1233-1258.
60. Hicks D, Mauchamp A (1999) Population structure and growth patterns of Opuntia echios var. gigantea along an elevation gradient in the Galápagos Islands. Biotropica 32:235-243.
61. Hiscock SJ, Tabah DA (2003) The different mechanisms of sporophytic self-incompatibility in flowering plants. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 358:1037-1045.
62. Holland JN, Fleming TH (1999) Mutualistic interactions between Upiga virescens (Pyralidae), a pollinating seed-consumer, and Lophocereus schottii (Cactaceae). Ecology 80:2074-2084.
63. Holsinger KE (1992) Ecological models of plant mating systems and the evolutionary stability of mixed mating systems. In: Wyatt R (ed) Ecology and evolution of plant reproduction. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp 169-191.
64. Hunt D, Taylor N, Charles G (2006) The cactus lexicon. DH Books, Milborne Port, UK.
65. Ibarra-Cerdeña CL, Iñiguez-Dávalos, Sánchez-Cordero V (2005) Pollination ecology of Stenocereus queretaroensis (Cactaceae), a chiropterophilous columnar cactus, in a tropical dry forest of Mexico. Am J Bot 92:503-509.
66. Jiménez-Sierra CL (2008) Estudios sobre la biología y demografía de Echinomastus platyacanthus Link et Otto, en Zapotitlán de las Salinas, Puebla. PhD Thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
67. Johnson R (1992) Pollination and reproductive ecology of Acuña cactus, Echinomastus erectrocentrus (Cactaceae). Int J Plant Sci 153:400-408.
68. Kearns CA, Inouye DW (1993) Techniques for pollination biologists. University Press of Colorado, Niwot, CO.
69. Knight TA (1799) An account of some experiments on the fecundation of vegetables. Philos Trans R Soc Lond 195-204.
70. Levin DA (1996) The evolutionary significance of pseudo-self-fertility. Am Nat 148:321-332.
71. Lichtenzveig J, Abbo S, Nerd A, Tel-Zur N, Mizrahi Y (2000) Cytology and mating systems in the climbing cacti Hylocereus and Selenicereus. Am J Bot 87:1058-1065.
72. Lloyd DG (1979) Some reproductive factors affecting the selection of self-fertilization in plants. Am Nat 113:67-79.
73. Lloyd DG, Webb CJ (1986) The avoidance of interference between the presentation of pollen and stigmas in angiosperms. I. Dichogamy. N Z J Bot 24:135-162.
74. Lovett-Doust J, Lovett-Doust L (1988) Plant reproductive ecology. Oxford University Press, New York.
75. Lüthy JM (2001) The Cacti of CITES. Appendix I. CITES identification manual. CITES, Federal Veterinary Office Switzerland, Botanical Garden of the University of Berne, IOS & Sukulent- Sammlung Zürich, Bern.
76. Mandujano MC, Montaña C, Eguiarte L (1996) Reproductive ecology and inbreeding depression in Opuntia rastrera (Cactaceae) in the Chihuahuan desert: Why are sexually derived recruitments so rare. Am J Bot 83:63-70.
77. Mandujano MC, Montaña C, Franco M, Golubov J, Flores-Martínez A (2001) Integration of demographic annual variability in a clonal desert cactus. Ecology 82:344-359.
78. Mandujano MC, Verhulst JAM, Carrillo-Angeles I, Golubov J (2007) Population dynamics of Ariocarpus scaphirostris Bödeker (Cactaceae): Evaluating the status of a threatened species. Int J Plant Sci 168:1035-1044.
79. Martínez-Á valos JG (2007) Estudio demográfico del "star cactus" Astrophytum asterias (Lem.) Zucc. (Cactaceae) una especie en riesgo de extinción. PhD Thesis, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Mexico.
80. Martínez-Peralta C (2007) Biología floral de Ariocarpus fissuratus (Engelmann) Schumann (Cactaceae) en Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila, México. BSc Thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
81. Matías-Palafox L (2007) Estructura poblacional y biología reproductiva de Turbinicarpus horripilus (Lem.) Vác. John & Riha (Cactaceae). MS Thesis, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico.
82. Mauseth JD (2006) Structure-function relationships in highly modified shoots of Cactaceae. Ann Bot 98:901-926.
83. McClure BA, Franklin-Tong V (2006) Gametophytic self-incompatibility: understanding the cellular mechanisms involved in "self" pollen tube inhibition. Planta 224:233-245.
84. McFarland JD, Kevan PG, Lane MA (1989) Pollination biology of Opuntia imbricata (Cactaceae) in southern Colorado. Can J Bot 67:24-28.
85. McIntosh ME (2002) Plant size, breeding system, and limits to reproductive success in two sister species of Ferocactus (Cactaceae). Plant Ecol 162:273-288.
86. Méndez M, Durán R, Dorantes A, Dzib G, Simá L, Simá P, Orellana R (2005) Floral demography and reproductive system of Pterocereus gaumeri, a rare columnar cactus endemic to Mexico. J Arid Environ 62:363-376.
87. Molina-Freaner F, Rojas-Martínez A, Fleming TH, Valiente-Banuet A (2004) Pollination biology of the columnar cactus Pachycereus pecten-aboriginum in north-western México. J Arid Environ 56:117-127.
88. Moraes EM, Abreu AG, Andrade SCS, Sene FM, Solferini VN (2005) Population genetic structure of two columnar cacti with a patchy distribution in eastern Brazil. Genetica 125:311-323.
89. Mota SL, Leila EB, Câmara MM, Da Silva SSA (2006) Allozyme diversity and morphometrics of Melocactus paucispinus (Cactaceae) and evidence for hybridization with M. concinnus in the Chapada Diamantina, North-eastern Brazil. Ann Bot 97:389-403.
90. Nassar JM, Ramírez N (2004) Reproductive biology of the melon cactus, Melocactus curvispinus (Cactaceae). Plant Syst Evol 248:31-44.
91. Nassar JM, Ramírez N, Linares O (1997) Comparative pollination biology of Venezuelan columnar cacti and the role of nectar-feeding bats in their sexual reproduction. Am J Bot 84:918-927.
92. Nassar JM, Hamrick JL, Fleming TH (2001) Genetic variation and population structure of the mixed-mating cactus, Melocactus curvispinus (Cactaceae). Heredity 87:69-79.
93. Nassar JM, Hamrick JL, Fleming TH (2002) Allozyme diversity and genetic structure of the leafy cactus (Pereskia guamacho [Cactaceae]). J Hered 93:193-200.
94. Nassar JM, Hamrick JL, Fleming TH (2003) Population genetic structure of venezuelan chiropterophilous columnar cacti (Cactaceae). Am J Bot 90:1628-1637.
95. Neal PR, Anderson GJ (2005) Are 'mating systems' 'breeding systems' of inconsistent and confusing terminology in plant reproductive biology? or is it the other way around. Plant Syst Evol 250:173-185.
96. Negrón-Ortiz V (1998) Reproductive biology of a rare cactus, Opuntia spinosissima (Cactaceae), in the Florida Keys: Why is seed set very low? Sex Plant Reprod 11:208-212.
97. Nobel PS (1988) Environmental biology of agaves and cacti. Cambridge University Press, New York.
98. Nyffeler R (2002) Phylogenetic relationships in the cactus family (Cactaceae) based on evidence from trnk matk and trnl-trnf sequences. Am J Bot 89:312-326.
99. Oaxaca-Villa B, Casas A, Valiente-Banuet A (2006) Reproductive biology in wild and silvicultural managed populations of Escontria chiotilla (Cacataceae) in the Tehuacán Valley, Central Mexico. Genet Resour Crop Evolut 53:277-287.
100. Orozco-Arroyo G (2002) Sistema reproductivo de Opuntia stenopetala Engelmann (Cactaceae). BSc Thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
101. Osborn MM, Kevan PG, Lane MA (1988) Pollination biology of Opuntia polyacantha and Opuntia phaeacantha (Cactaceae) in southern Colorado. Plant Syst Evol 159:85-94.
102. Otero-Arnaiz A, Casas A, Bartola C, Pérez-Negrón E, Valiente-Banuet A (2003) Evolution of Polaskia chichipe (Cactaceae) under domestication in the Tehuacán Valley, Central Mexico: reproductive biology. Am J Bot 90:593-602.
103. Palleiro ND (2008) Estructura poblacional y genética del cactus columnar Cephalocereus totolapensis (Bravo et MacDougall) en el estado de Oaxaca. MSc Thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
104. Palleiro N, Mandujano MC, Golubov J (2006) Aborted fruits of Opuntia microdasys (Cactaceae): Insurance against reproductive failure. Am J Bot 93:505-511.
105. Parker KC, Hamrick (1992) Genetic and clonal structure in a columnar cactus, Lophocereus schottii. Am J Bot 79:86-96.
106. Pimienta-Barrios E, del Castillo RF (2002) Reproductive biology. In: Nobel PS (ed) Cacti: biology and uses. University of California Press, Berkeley, pp 75-90.
107. Piña HH (2000) Ecología reproductiva de Ferocactus robustus en el Valle de Zapotitlán Salinas, Puebla. MSc Thesis, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico.
108. Piña HH (2007) Biología reproductiva de Opuntia microdasys (Lehm.) Pfeiffer en el Desierto Chihuahuense. PhD Thesis, Instituto de Ecología A.C., Mexico.
109. Piña H, Montaña C, Mandujano MC (2007) Fruit abortion in the Chihuahuan-Desert endemic cactus Opuntia microdasys. Plant Ecol 193:305-313.
110. Plasencia-López LMT (2003) Biología reproductiva de Opuntia bradtiana (Cactaceae) en Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila. BSc Thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
111. Plasencia-López LMT (2008) Diversidad clonal y cruzas óptimas en Opuntia rastrera Weber (Cactaceae). MSc Thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
112. Powell AM (1995) Second generation experimental hybridizations in the Echinocereus x lloydii complex (Cactaceae), and further documentation of dioecy in E. coccineus. Plant Syst Evol 196:63-74.
113. Raguso AR, Henzel C, Buchmann SL, Nabhan GP (2003) Trumpet flowers of the sonoran desert: Floral biology of Peniocereus cacti and sacred Datura. Int J Plant Sci 164:877-892.
114. Ramírez-Corona F (2000) Estudio de la variación genética en poblaciones naturales de dos especies endémica y amenazadas de Thelocactus spp. (Cactaceae). MSc Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
115. Rebman J (2001) The succulents of Islote Toro, Baja California, Mexico. Cact Suc Mex 46:52-55.
116. Rebman JP, Pinkava DJ (2001) Opuntia cacti of North America - An overview. Fla Entomol 84:474-483.
117. Reyes-Agüero JA, Aguirre JR, Valiente-Banuet A (2006) Reproductive biology of Opuntia: A review. J Arid Environ 64:549-585.
118. Richards AJ (1997) Plant breeding systems. Chapman & Hall, Cambridge.
119. Rivera-Marchand B, Ackerman JD (2006) Bat pollination breakdown in the Caribbean columnar cactus Pilosocereus royenii. Biotropica 38:635-642.
120. Rosas-Barrera MD, Mandujano MC (2002) La diversidad de historias de vida de cactáceas, aproximación por el triángulo demográfico. Cact Suc Mex 47:33-34.
121. Ross R (1981) Chromosome counts, cytology, and reproduction in the Cactaceae. Am J Bot 68:463-470.
122. Rzedowski J (1991) Diversidad y orígenes de la flora fanerogámica de México. Act Bot Mex 14:13-21.
123. Sánchez-Carbajal D (2007) Embriología de Mammillaria dioica K. Barandegee (Cactaceae). BSc Thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
124. Schemske DW, Lande R (1985) The evolution of self-fertilization and inbreeding depression in plants. II. Empirical observations. Evolution 39:41-52.
125. Sprengel KC (1793) Discovery of the secret of nature in the structure and fertilization of flowers. In: Lloyd DG, Barrett S (eds) Floral biology: Studies on floral evolution in animal-pollinated plants. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp 3-43.
126. Strittmatter LI, Negrón-Ortiz V, Hickey RJ (2002) Subdioecy in Consolea spinosissima (Cactaceae): breeding system and embryological studies. Am J Bot 89:1373-1387.
127. Strong AW, Williamson PS (2007) Breeding system of Astrophytum asterias: An endangered cactus. Southwest Nat 52:341-346.
128. Uyenoyama MK(1993)Genetic incompatibility as a eugenicmechanism. In: Thornhill NW(ed) The natural history of inbreeding and outbreeding. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
129. Valiente-Banuet A, Arizmendi MC, Rojas A, Dominguez (1996) Ecological relationships between columnar cacti and nectar-feeding bats in Mexico. J Trop Ecol 11:1-17.
130. Valiente-Banuet A, Rojas-Martínez A, Arizmendi MC, (1997) Pollination biology of two columnar cacti (Neobuxbaumia mezcalaensis and Neobuxbaumia macrocephala) in the Tehuacan Valley, central Mexico. Am J Bot 84:452-455.
131. Valiente-Banuet A, Arizmendi MC, Rojas-Martínez A, Casas C, Silva C, Dávila P (2002) Biotic interactions and population dynamics of columnar cacti. In: Fleming TH, Valiente-Banuet A (eds) Columnar cacti and their mutualists: Evolution, ecology and conservation, The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ, pp 225-240.
132. Valverde T, Quijas S, López-Villavicencio M, Castillo S (2004) Population dynamics of Mammillaria magnimamma Haworth (Cactaceae) in a lava-field in central Mexico. Plant Ecol 170:167-184.
133. Wallace RS (1995) Molecular systematic study of the Cactaceae: using chloroplast DNA variation to elucidate cactus phylogeny. Bradleya 13:1-12.
134. Wallace RS, Gibson AC (2002) Evolution and systematics. In: Nobel PS (ed) Cacti: biology and uses. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
135. Waser NM (1983) The adaptive nature of floral traits: Ideas and evidence. In: Real L (ed) Pollination biology. Academic, Orlando, pp 241-285.
136. Webb CJ (1979) Breeding systems and the evolution of dioecy in New Zealand apioid Umbelliferae. Evolution 33:662-672.
137. Webb CJ, Lloyd DG (1986) The avoidance of interference between the presentation of pollen and stigmas in angiosperms. II. Herkogamy. N Z J Bot 24:163-168.
138. Wyatt R (1983) Pollinator-plant interactions and the evolution of breeding systems. In: Real L (ed) Pollination Biology. Academic, Orlando, pp 51-95.
139. Yeo PF (1975) Some aspects of heterostyly. New Phytol 75:147-153.