Heterogeneous redox conditions and a shallow chemocline in the Mesoproterozoic ocean: Evidence from carbon-sulfur-iron relationships

Precambrian Research

Volumn 257, Issue , 2015, Pages 94-108

  Gilleaudeau, Geoffrey J ^a   Kah, Linda C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE   (United States)

Author keywords

Epeiric seas; Iron speciation; Mesoproterozoic; Redox; Sulfur isotopes

Indexed keywords

CHEMOSTRATIGRAPHY; OXYGENATION; PALEOENVIRONMENT; PROTEROZOIC; PYRITE; REDOX CONDITIONS; SPECIATION (CHEMISTRY); SULFUR ISOTOPE; THERMOCLINE;

EUKARYOTA;

EID: 84919935804     PISSN: 03019268     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.precamres.2014.11.030     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. Alvaro J.J., Macouin M., Bauluz B., Clausen S., Ader M. The Ediacaran sedimentary architecture and carbonate productivity in the Atar cliffs, Adrar, Mauritania: palaeoenvironments, chemostratigraphy and diagenesis. Precambrian Res. 2007, 153:236-261.
2. Anbar A.D., Knoll A.H. Proterozoic ocean chemistry and evolution: a bioinorganic bridge?. Science 2002, 297:1137-1142.
3. Anderson T.F., Raiswell R. Sources and mechanisms for the enrichment of highly reactive iron in euxinic Black Sea sediments. Am. J. Sci. 2004, 304:203-233.
4. Benan C.A.A., Deynoux M. Facies analysis and sequence stratigraphy of Neoproterozoic platform deposits in Adrar of Mauritania, Taoudeni Basin, West Africa. Geol. Rundsch. 1998, 87:283-330.
5. Bertrand-Sarfati J., Moussine-Pouchkine A. Evolution and environmental conditions of Conophyton-Jacutophyton associations in the Atar Dolomite (Upper Proterozoic, Mauritania). Precambrian Res. 1985, 29:207-234.
6. Bertrand-Sarfati J., Moussine-Pouchkine A. Is cratonic sedimentation consistent with available models? An example from the Upper Proterozoic of the West African craton. Sediment. Geol. 1988, 58:255-276.
7. Bertrand-Sarfati J., Moussine-Pouchkine A. Mauritanian microbial buildups: Meso-Neoproterozoic stromatolites and their environment; six days field trip on the Mauritanian Adrar. Assoc. Sedimentol. Fr. 1999, 31:1-103.
8. Blumenberg M., Thiel V., Riegel W., Kah L.C., Reitner J. Black shale formation by microbial mats lacking sterane-producing eukaryotes, late Mesoproterozoic (1.1Ga) Taoudeni Basin, Mauritania. Precambrian Res. 2012, 196-197:113-127.
9. Boyle R.A., Clark J.R., Poulton S.W., Shields-Zhou G., Canfield D.E., Lenton T.M. Nitrogen cycle feedbacks as a control on euxinia in the mid-Proterozoic ocean. Nat. Commun. 2013, 4:1533.
10. Brocks J.J., Love G.D., Summons R.E., Knoll A.H., Logan G.A., Bowden S.A. Biomarker evidence for green and purple sulfur bacteria in a stratified Paleoproterozoic sea. Nature 2005, 437:866-870.
11. Brüchert V., Pratt L.M. Contemporaneous early diagenetic formation of organic and inorganic sulfur in estuarine sediments from St. Andrew Bay, Florida, USA. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1996, 60:2325-2332.
12. Brumsack H.J. The trace metal content of recent organic carbon-rich sediments: implications for Cretaceous black shale formation. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2006, 232:344-361.
13. Buick R., Knoll A.H. Acritarchs and microfossils from the Mesoproterozoic Bangemall Group, northwestern Australia. J. Paleontol. 1999, 73:744-764.
14. Burdett J.W., Arthur M.A., Richardson M. A Neogene seawater sulfur isotope age curve from calcareous pelagic microfossils. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1989, 94:189-198.
15. Butterfield N.J. Bangiomorpha pubescens n. gen., n. sp.: implications for the evolution of sex, multicellularity, and the Mesoproterozoic/Neoproterozoic radiation of eukaryotes. Paleobiology 2000, 26:386-404.
16. Butterfield N.J. Paleobiology of the late Mesoproterozoic (ca. 1200Ma) Hunting Formation, Somerset Island, Arctic Canada. Precambrian Res. 2001, 111:235-256.
17. Calvert S.E., Pedersen T.F. Geochemistry of recent oxic and anoxic marine sediments: implications for the geological record. Mar. Geol. 1993, 113:67-88.
18. Canfield D.E. Biogeochemistry of sulfur isotopes. Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 2001, 43:607-636.
19. Canfield D.E. The early history of atmospheric oxygen: homage to Robert M. Garrels. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005, 33:1-36.
20. 34S-depleted sulfide during bacterial disproportionation of elemental sulfur. Science 1994, 266:1973-1975.
21. Canfield D.E., Raiswell R., Westrich J.T., Reaves C.M., Berner R.A. The use of chromium reduction in the analysis of reduced inorganic sulfur in sediments and shales. Chem. Geol. 1986, 54:149-155.
22. Canfield D.E., Lyons T.W., Raiswell R. A model for iron deposition to euxinic Black Sea sediments. Am. J. Sci. 1996, 296:818-834.
23. Canfield D.E., Poulton S.W., Narbonne G.M. Late-Neoproterozoic deep-ocean oxygenation and the rise of animal life. Science 2007, 315:92-95.
24. Canfield D.E., Poulton S.W., Knoll A.H., Narbonne G.M., Ross G., Goldberg T., Strauss H. Ferruginous conditions dominated later Neoproterozoic deep-water chemistry. Science 2008, 321:949-952.
25. Canfield D.E., Farquhar J., Zerkle A.L. High isotope fractionations during sulfate reduction in a low-sulfate euxinic ocean analogy. Geology 2010, 38:415-418.
26. Chu X., Zhang T., Zhang Q., Lyons T.W. Sulfur and carbon isotope records from 1700 to 800Ma carbonates of the Jixian section, northern China: implications for secular isotope variations in Proterozoic seawater and relationships to global supercontinental events. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2007, 71:4668-4692.
27. Clauer N. Géochimie isotopique du strontium des milieux sédimentaires: application a la geochronology de la couverture du craton ouest-africain. Mem. Sci. Géol. Strasbg. 1976, 45:1-256.
28. Clauer N. Rb-Sr and K-Ar dating of Precambrian clays and glauconites. Precambrian Res. 1981, 15:331-352.
29. Clauer N., Caby R., Jeanette D., Trompette R. Geochronology of sedimentary and metasedimentary Precambrian rocks of the West African craton. Precambrian Res. 1982, 18:53-71.
30. Deynoux M. Les formations glaciaires du Précambrien terminal et de la fin de l'Ordovicien en Afrique de l'Ouest. Deux exemples de glaciation d'inlandsis sur une plateforme stable 1980, vol. 17:1-554. Laboratorie de la Science de Terre, St. JérÔme, Marseille.
31. Deynoux M., Kocurek G., Proust J.N. Late Proterozoic periglacial aeolian deposits on the West African Platform, Taoudeni Basin, western Mali. Sedimentology 1989, 36:531-549.
32. Ding H., Yao S., Chen J. Authigenic pyrite formation and re-oxidation as an indicator of an unsteady-state redox sedimentary environment: evidence from the intertidal mangrove sediments of Hainan Island, China. Cont. Shelf Res. 2014, (in press). 10.1016/j.csr.2014.02.011.
33. Emerson S.R., Huested S.S. Ocean anoxia and the concentrations of molybdenum and vanadium in seawater. Mar. Chem. 1991, 34:177-196.
34. Erickson B.E., Helz G.R. Molybdenum (VI) speciation in sulfidic waters: stability and lability of thiomolybdates. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2000, 64:1149-1158.
35. Force E.R., Cannon W.F. Depositional model for shallow-marine manganese deposits around black shale basins. Econ. Geol. 1988, 83:93-117.
36. Frank T.D., Kah L.C., Lyons T.W. Changes in organic matter production and accumulation as a mechanism for isotopic evolution in the Mesoproterozoic ocean. Geol. Mag. 2003, 140:397-420.
37. Geider R.J., La Roche J. The role of iron in phytoplankton photosynthesis, and the potential for iron-limitation of primary productivity in the sea. Photosynth. Res. 1994, 39:275-301.
38. Gellatly A.M., Lyons T.W. Trace sulfate in mid-Proterozoic carbonates and the sulfur isotope record of biospheric evolution. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2005, 69:3813-3829.
39. Gill B.C., Lyons T.W., Young S.A., Kump L.R., Knoll A.H., Saltzman M.R. Geochemical evidence for widespread euxinia in the Later Cambrian ocean. Nature 2011, 469:80-83.
40. Gilleaudeau G.J., Kah L.C. Carbon isotope records in a Mesoproterozoic epicratonic sea: carbon cycling in a low-oxygen world. Precambrian Res. 2013, 228:85-101.
41. Gilleaudeau G.J., Kah L.C. Oceanic molybdenum drawdown by epeiric sea expansion in the Mesoproterozoic. Chem. Geol. 2013, 356:21-37.
42. Girard J.P., Deynoux M., Nahon D. Diagenesis of the Upper Proterozoic siliciclastic sediments of the Taoudeni Basin (West Africa) and relation to diabase emplacement. J. Sediment. Petrol. 1989, 59:233-248.
43. Glass J.B., Wolfe-Simon F., Anbar A.D. Coevolution of metal availability and nitrogen assimilation in cyanobacteria and algae. Geobiology 2009, 7:100-123.
44. Gomes M.L., Hurtgen M.T. Sulfur isotope systematics of a euxinic, low-sulfate lake: evaluating the importance of the reservoir effect in modern and ancient oceans. Geology 2013, 41:663-666.
45. Guo W., Strauss H., Kaufman A.J., Schröder S., Gutzmer J., Wong B., Baker M.A., Bekker A., Jin Q., Kim S., Farquhar J. Reconstructing Earth's surface oxidation across the Archean-Proterozoic transition. Geology 2009, 37:399-402.
46. Habicht K.S., Gade M., Thamdrup B., Berg P., Canfield D.E. Calibration of sulfate levels in the Archean Ocean. Science 2002, 298:2372-2374.
47. Han T.M., Runnegar B. Megascopic eukaryotic algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 1992, 257:232-235.
48. Helz G.R., Miller C.V., Charnock J.M., Mosselmans J.F.W., Pattrick R.A.D., Garner C.D., Vaughan D.J. Mechanism of molybdenum removal from the sea and its concentration in black shales: EXAFS evidence. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1996, 60:3631-3642.
49. Holland H.D. The oxygenation of the atmosphere and oceans. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 2006, 361:903-915.
50. 2? A mechanistic overview of biological nitrogen fixation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2006, 103:17088-17093.
51. Javaux E.J., Knoll A.H., Walter M.R. Morphological and ecological complexity in early eukaryotic ecosystems. Nature 2001, 412:66-69.
52. Javaux E.J., Knoll A.H., Walter M.R. Recognizing and interpreting the fossils of early eukaryotes. Orig. Life Evol. Biosph. 2003, 33:75-94.
53. Javaux E.J., Knoll A.H., Walter M.R. TEM evidence for eukaryotic diversity in mid-Proterozoic oceans. Geobiology 2004, 2:121-132.
54. Johnston D.T., Farquhar J., Wing B.A., Kaufman A.J., Canfield D.E., Habicht K.S. Multiple sulfur isotope fractionations in biological systems: a case study with sulfate reducers and sulfur disproportionators. Am. J. Sci. 2005, 305:645-660.
55. Johnston D.T., Wong B.A., Farquhar J., Kaufman A.J., Strauss H., Lyons T.W., Kah L.C., Canfield D.E. Active microbial sulfur disproportionation in the Mesoproterozoic. Science 2005, 310:1477-1479.
56. Kah L.C., Bartley J.K. The Precambrian record of evolving oxygen. Int. Geol. Rev. 2011, 53:1424-1442.
57. 13C stratigraphy of the Proterozoic Bylot Supergroup, northern Baffin Island: implications for regional lithostratigraphic correlations. Can. J. Earth Sci. 1999, 36:313-332.
58. Kah L.C., Lyons T.W., Chesley J.T. Geochemistry of a 1.2Ga carbonate-evaporite succession, northern Baffin and Bylot Islands: implications for Mesoproterozoic marine evolution. Precambrian Res. 2001, 111:203-234.
59. Kah L.C., Lyons T.W., Frank T.D. Evidence for low marine sulphate and the protracted oxygenation of the Proterozoic biosphere. Nature 2004, 431:834-838.
60. Kah L.C., Bartley J.K., Stagner A.F. Reinterpreting a Proterozoic enigma: Conophyton-Jacutophyton stromatolites of the Mesoproterozoic Atar Group, Mauritania. Int. Assoc. Sed. 2009, 41:277-295.
61. Kah L.C., Bartley J.K., Teal D.A. Chemostratigraphy of the Late Mesoproterozoic Atar Group, Taoudeni Basin, Mauritania: muted isotopic variability, facies correlation, and global isotopic trends. Precambrian Res. 2012, 200-203:82-103.
62. Kendall B., Reinhard C.T., Lyons T.W., Kaufman A.J., Poulton S.W., Anbar A.D. Pervasive oxygenation along late Archaean ocean margins. Nat. Geosci. 2010, 3:647-652.
63. Klepac-Ceraj V., Hayes C.A., Gilhooly W.P., Lyons T.W., Kolter R., Pearson A. Microbial diversity under extreme euxinia: Mahoney Make, Canada. Geobiology 2012, 10:223-235.
64. Knoll A.H. Proterozoic and early Cambrian protists: evidence for accelerating evolutionary tempo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994, 91:67434-76750.
65. Knoll A.H., Javaux E.J., Hewitt D., Cohen P. Eukaryotic organisms in Proterozoic oceans. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 2006, 361:1023-1038.
66. Kump L.R., Junium C., Arthur M.A., Brasier A., Fallick A., Melezhik V., Lepland A., Crne A.E., Luo G. Isotopic evidence for massive oxidation of organic matter following the Great Oxidation Event. Science 2011, 334:1694-1696.
67. Leslie B.W., Hammond D.E., Berelson W.M., Lund S.P. Diagenesis in anoxic sediments from the California continental borderland and its influence on iron, sulfur, and magnetite behavior. J. Geophys. Res. 1990, 95:4453-4470.
68. Lewis B.L., Landing W.M. The biogeochemistry of manganese and iron in the Black Sea. Deep-Sea Res. 1991, 38:S773-S803.
69. Lyons T.W., Severmann S. A critical look at iron paleoredox proxies: new insights from modern euxinic marine basins. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2006, 70:5698-5722.
70. Lyons T.W., Anbar A.D., Severmann S., Scott C., Gill B.C. Tracking euxinia in the ancient ocean: a multiproxy perspective and Proterozoic case study. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2009, 37:507-534.
71. Lyons T.W., Reinhard C.T., Planavsky N.J. The rise of oxygen in Earth's early ocean and atmosphere. Nature 2014, 506:307-315.
72. März C., Poulton S.W., Beckmann B., Küster K., Wagner T., Kasten S. Redox sensitivity of P cycling during marine black shale formation: dynamics of sulfidic and anoxic, non-sulfidic bottom waters. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2008, 72:3703-3717.
73. McFadden K.A., Huang J., Chu X., Jiang G., Kaufman A.J., Zhou C., Yuan X., Xiao S. Pulsed oxidation and biological evolution in the Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2008, 105:3197-3202.
74. Morel F.M.M., Hudson R.J.M., Price N.M. Limitation of productivity by trace metals in the sea. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1991, 36:1742-1755.
75. Morford J.L., Russell A.D., Emerson S. Trace metal evidence for changes in the redox environment associated with the transition from terrigenous clay to diatomaceous sediment, Saanich Inlet, BC. Mar. Geol. 2001, 174:355-369.
76. Moussine-Pouchkine A., Bertrand-Sarfati J. Tectonosedimentary subdivisions in the Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian cover of the Taoudenni Basin (Algeria-Mauritania-Mali). J. Afr. Earth Sci. 1997, 24:425-443.
77. Neubert N., Nägler T.F., Böttcher M.E. Sulfidity controls molybdenum isotope fractionation into euxinic sediments: evidence from the modern Black Sea. Geology 2008, 36:775-778.
78. Och L.M., Shields-Zhou G.A. The Neoproterozoic oxygenation event: environmental perturbations and biogeochemical cycling. Earth-Sci. Rev. 2012, 110:26-57.
79. Owens J.D., Gill B.C., Jenkyns H.C., Bates S.M., Severmann S., Kuypers M.M.M., Woodfine R.G., Lyons T.W. Sulfur isotopes track the global extent and dynamics of euxinia during Cretaceous Oceanic Anoxic Event 2. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2013, 110:18407-18412.
80. Parnell J., Boyce A.J., Mark D., Bowden S., Spinks S. Early oxygenation of the terrestrial environment during the Mesoproterozoic. Nature 2010, 468:290-293.
81. Pewitt M.L., Kah L.C., Gilleaudeau G.J. Redox structure of Mesoproterozoic shale derived from sulfide minerals and mineral texture. Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Programs 2013, 45:114.
82. Planavsky N.J., McGoldrick P., Scott C.T., Li C., Reinhard C.T., Kelly A.E., Chu X., Bekker A., Love G.D., Lyons T.W. Widespread iron-rich conditions in the mid-Proterozoic ocean. Nature 2011, 477:448-451.
83. Planavsky N.J., Bekker A., Hofmann A., Owens J.D., Lyons T.W. Sulfur record of rising and falling marine oxygen and sulfate levels during the Lomagundi event. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2012, 109:18300-18305.
84. Poulton S.W., Canfield D.E. Development of a sequential extraction procedure for iron: implications for iron partitioning in continentally derived particulates. Chem. Geol. 2005, 214:209-221.
85. Poulton S.W., Canfield D.E. Ferruginous conditions: a dominant feature of the ocean through Earth's history. Elements 2011, 7:107-112.
86. Poulton S.W., Raiswell R. The low-temperature geochemical cycle of iron: from continental fluxes to marine sediment deposition. Am. J. Sci. 2002, 302:774-805.
87. Poulton S.W., Fralick P.W., Canfield D.E. The transition to a sulphidic ocean ~1.84 billion years ago. Nature 2004, 431:173-177.
88. Poulton S.W., Fralick P.W., Canfield D.E. Spatial variability in oceanic redox structure 1.8 billion years ago. Nat. Geosci. 2010, 3:486-490.
89. Rahmani A., Goucem A., Boukhallat S., Saadallah N. Infracambrian petroleum play elements of the NE Taoudenni Basin (Algeria). Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. 2009, 326:221-229.
90. Raiswell R., Berner R.A. Pyrite formation in euxinic and semi-euxinic sediments. Am. J. Sci. 1985, 285:710-724.
91. Raiswell R., Canfield D.E. Sources of iron for pyrite formation in marine sediments. Am. J. Sci. 1998, 298:219-245.
92. Rasmussen B., Fletcher I.R., Brocks J.J., Kilburn M.R. Reassessing the first appearance of eukaryotes and cyanobacteria. Nature 2008, 455:1101-1104.
93. Reinhard C.T., Planavsky N.J., Robbins L.J., Partin C.A., Gill B.C., Lalonde S.V., Bekker A., Konhauser K.O., Lyons T.W. Proterozoic ocean redox and biogeochemical stasis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2013, 110:5357-5362.
94. Rooney A.D., Selby D., Houzay J.-P., Renne P.R. Re-Os geochronology of a Mesoproterozoic sedimentary succession, Taoudeni Basin, Mauritania: implications for basin-wide correlations and Re-Os organic-rich sediments systematics. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2010, 289:486-496.
95. Roychoudhury A.N., Kostka J.E., Van Cappellen P. Pyritization: a paleoenvironmental redox proxy reevaluated. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2003, 57:1183-1193.
96. Sahoo S.K., Planavsky N.P., Kendall B., Wang X., Shi X., Scott C., Anbar A.D., Lyons T.W., Jiang G. Ocean oxygenation in the wake of the Marinoan glaciation. Nature 2012, 489:546-549.
97. Schieber J. Marcasite in black shales-a mineral proxy for oxygenated bottom waters and intermittent oxidation of carbonaceous muds. J. Sediment. Res. 2011, 81:447-458.
98. Scott C.T., Lyons T.W., Bekker A., Shen Y., Poulton S.W., Chu X., Anbar A.D. Tracing the stepwise oxygenation of the Proterozoic ocean. Nature 2008, 452:456-459.
99. Scott C., Planavsky N.J., Dupont C.L., Kendall B., Gill B.C., Robbins L.J., Husband K.F., Arnold G.L., Wing B.A., Poulton S.W., Bekker A., Anbar A.D., Konhauser K.O., Lyons T.W. Bioavailability of zinc in marine systems through time. Nat. Geosci. 2012, 6:125-128.
100. Shen Y., Canfield D.E., Knoll A.H. Middle Proterozoic ocean chemistry: evidence from the McArthur Basin, northern Australia. Am. J. Sci. 2002, 302:81-109.
101. Shen Y., Knoll A.H., Walter M.R. Evidence for low sulphate and anoxia in a mid-Proterozoic marine basin. Nature 2003, 423:632-635.
102. Shields G.A., Deynoux M., Strauss H., Paquet H., Nahon D. Barite-bearing cap dolostones of the Taoudéni Basin, northwest Africa: sedimentary and isotopic evidence for methane seepage after a Neoproterozoic glaciation. Precambrian Res. 2007, 153:209-235.
103. Shofield D.I., Horstwood M.S.A., Pitfield P.E.J., Crowley Q.G., Wilkinson A.F., Sidaty H.C.O. Timing and kinematics of Eburnean tectonics in the central Reguibat Shield, Mauritania. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 2006, 163:549-560.
104. Sim M.S., Bosak T., Ono S. Large sulfur isotope fractionation does not require disproportionation. Science 2011, 333:74-77.
105. Sperling E.A., Rooney A.D., Hays L., Sergeev V.N., Vorob'eva N.G., Sergeeva N.D., Selby D., Johnston D.T., Knoll A.H. Redox heterogeneity of subsurface waters in the Mesoproterozoic ocean. Geobiology 2014, 10.1111/gbi.12091.
106. Strauss H. The isotopic composition of sedimentary sulfur through time. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 1997, 132:97-118.
107. Stüekien E.E. A test of the nitrogen-limitation hypothesis for retarded eukaryote radiation: nitrogen isotopes across a Mesoproterozoic basinal profile. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2013, 120:121-139.
108. Taylor S.R., McLennan S.M. The Continental Crust: Its Composition and Evolution 1985, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Palo Alto, CA.
109. Thomas H.V., Large R.R., Bull S.W., Maslennikov V., Berry R.F., Fraser R., Froud S., Moye R. Pyrite and pyrrhotite textures and composition in sediments, laminated quartz veins, and reefs at Bendigo Gold Mine, Australia: insights for ore genesis. Econ. Geol. 2011, 106:1-31.
110. Thompson C.K., Kah L.C. Sulfur isotope evidence for widespread euxinia and a fluctuating oxycline in Early to Middle Ordovician greenhouse oceans. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2012, 313-314:189-214.
111. Tribovillard N., Riboulleau A., Lyons T.W., Baudin F. Enhanced trapping of molybdenum by sulfurized organic matter of marine origin in Mesozoic limestones and shales. Chem. Geol. 2004, 213:385-401.
112. Tribovillard N., Algeo T.J., Lyons T., Riboulleau A. Trace metals as paleoredox and paleoproductivity proxies: an update. Chem. Geol. 2006, 232:12-32.
113. Trompette R., Carozzi A.V. Geology of Western Gondwana (2000-500Ma) 1994, 340. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
114. Villeneuve M., Cornée J.J. Structure, evolution and paleogeography of the West African craton and bordering belts during the Neoproterozoic. Precambrian Res. 1994, 69:307-326.
115. Wedepohl K.H. Environmental influences on the chemical composition of shales and clays. Phys. Chem. Earth 1971, 8:305-333.
116. Wedepohl K.H. The composition of the upper Earth's crust and the natural cycles of selected metals. Metals in natural raw materials. Natural resources. Metals and their Compounds in the Environment: Occurrence, Analysis, and Biological Relevance 1991, 3-17. VCH, Weinheim/New York/Basel/Cambridge. E. Merian, T.W. Clarkson, L. Fishbein, M.G. Mallinekrodt, M. Piscator, H.W. Schlipköter, M. Stoeppler, W. Stumm, F.W. Sunderman (Eds.).
117. Werne J.P., Lyons T.W., Hollander D.J., Formolo M.J., Sinninghe Darnsté J.S. Reduced sulfur in euxinic sediments of the Cariaco Basin: sulfur isotope constraints on organic sulfur formation. Chem. Geol. 2003, 195:159-179.
118. Wijsman J.W.M., Middelburg J.J., Herman P.M.J., Böttcher M.E., Heip C.H.R. Sulfur and iron speciation in surface sediments along the northwestern margin of the Black Sea. Mar. Chem. 2001, 74:261-278.
119. Woods K., Knoll A.H., German T. Xanthophyte algae from the Mesoproterozoic/Neoproterozoic transition: confirmation of evolutionary implications. Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Programs 1998, 30:A-232.
120. Xiao S., Knoll A.H., Kaufman A.J., Yin L., Zhang Y. Neoproterozoic fossils in Mesoproterozoic rocks? Chemostratigraphic resolution of a biostratigraphic conundrum from the North China Platform. Precambrian Res. 1997, 84:197-220.
121. Xiao S., Zhang Y., Knoll A.H. Three-dimensional preservation of algae and animal embryos in a Neoproterozoic phosphorite. Nature 1998, 391:553-558.
122. Zhang T., Trela W., Jiang S.Y., Nielsen J.K., Shen Y. Major oceanic redox condition change correlated with the rebound of marine animal diversity during the Late Ordovician. Geology 2011, 39:675-678.
123. Zopfi J., Ferdelman T.G., Jorgensen B.B., Teske A., Thamdrup B. Influence of water column dynamics on sulfide oxidation and other major biogeochemical processes in the chemocline of Mariager Fjord (Denmark). Mar. Chem. 2001, 74:29-51.