Ecology and evolution of the African great lakes and their faunas

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

Volumn 45, Issue , 2014, Pages 519-545

  Salzburger, Walter ^a   Bocxlaer, Bert Van ^b,c,d   Cohen, Andrew S ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BASEL   (Switzerland)

^b DEPARTMENT OF PALEOBIOLOGY   (United States)

^c GHENT UNIVERSITY   (Belgium)

^d JUSTUS LIEBIG UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^e University of Arizona   (United States)

Author keywords

adaptive radiation; African Rift; biodiversity conservation; ecosystem functioning; morphological evolution; speciation; species flock

Indexed keywords

ADAPTIVE RADIATION; ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECT; BIODIVERSITY; BIOTIC FACTOR; COEVOLUTION; ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION; EXTINCTION RISK; HABITAT CONSERVATION; MORPHOLOGY; SPECIATION (BIOLOGY);

AFRICA;

EID: 84913526247     PISSN: 1543592X     EISSN: 15452069     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-120213-091804     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Alin SR, Cohen AS, Bills R, Gashagaza MM, Michel E, et al. 1999. Effects of landscape disturbance on animal communities in Lake Tanganyika, East Africa. Conserv. Biol. 13:1017-33
2. Aubin-Horth N, Desjardins JK, Martei YM, Balshine S, Hofmann HA. 2007. Masculinized dominant females in a cooperatively breeding species. Mol. Ecol. 16:1349-58
3. Barel CDN, Dorit R, Greenwood PH, Fryer G, Hughes N, et al. 1985. Destruction of fisheries in Africa's lakes. Nature 315:19-20
4. Baric S, Salzburger W, Sturmbauer C. 2003. Phylogeography and evolution of the Tanganyikan cichlid genus Tropheus based upon mitochondrial DNA sequences. J. Mol. Evol. 56:54-68
5. Barrett RD, Schluter D. 2008. Adaptation from standing genetic variation. Trends Ecol. Evol. 23:38-44
6. Beuning KRM, Talbot MR, Kelts K. 1997. A revised 30, 000-year paleoclimatic and paleohydrologic history of Lake Albert, East Africa. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclim. Palaeoecol. 136:259-79
7. BoulengerG. 1898. Catalogue of the Fresh-Water Fishes of Africa in the BritishMuseum (NaturalHistory). London: Br. Mus. Nat. Hist.
8. Brawand D, Wagner C, Li YI, Malinsky M, Keller I, et al. 2014. The genomic substrate for adaptive radiation: genomes of five African cichlid fish. Nature 513:375-81
9. Brockhurst MA, Koskella B. 2013. Experimental coevolution of species interactions. Trends Ecol. Evol. 28:367-75
10. Brooks JL. 1950. Speciation in ancient lakes. Q. Rev. Biol. 25:30-176
11. Burmeister SS. 2007. Genomic responses to behavioral interactions in an African cichlid fish: mechanisms and evolutionary implications. Brain Behav. Evol. 70:247-56
12. Clabaut C, Bunje PM, Salzburger W, Meyer A. 2007. Geometric morphometric analyses provide evidence for the adaptive character of the Tanganyikan cichlid fish radiations. Evolution 61:560-78
13. Cohen AS. 2003. Paleolimnology: History and Evolution of Lake Systems. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press.
14. Cohen AS. 2012. Scientific drilling and evolution in ancient lakes: lessons learned and recommendations for the future. Hydrobiologia 682:3-25
15. Cohen AS, Palacios-Fest MR, Msaky ES, Alin SR, McKee B, et al. 2005. Paleolimnological investigations of anthropogenic environmental change in Lake Tanganyika: IX. Summary of paleorecords of environmental change and catchment deforestation at Lake Tanganyika and impacts on the Lake Tanganyika ecosystem. J. Paleolimnol. 34:125-45
16. Cohen AS, Stone JR, Beuning KR, Park LE, Reinthal PN, et al. 2007. Ecological consequences of early Late Pleistocene megadroughts in tropical Africa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:16422-27
17. Cohen AS, Van Bocxlaer B, Todd JA, McGlue M, Michel E, et al. 2013. Quaternary ostracodes and molluscs from the Rukwa Basin (Tanzania) and their evolutionary and palaeobiogeographic implications. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimat. Palaeoecol. 392:79-97
18. Colombo M, Diepeveen ET, Muschick M, Santos ME, Indermaur A, et al. 2013. The ecological and genetic basis of convergent thick-lipped phenotypes in cichlid fishes. Mol. Ecol. 22:670-84
19. Coulter GW. 1991. Composition of the flora and fauna. In Lake Tanganyika and Its Life, ed. GW Coulter, pp. 200-74. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
20. Daniels SR, Cumberlidge N, Pérez-Losada M, Marijnissen SAE, Crandall KA. 2006. Evolution of Afrotropical freshwater crab lineages obscured by morphological convergence. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 40:227-35
21. Danley PD, Husemann M, Ding B, DiPietro LM, Beverly EJ, Peppe DJ. 2012. The impact of the geological history and paleoclimate on the diversification of East African cichlids. Int. J. Evol. Biol. 2012:574851
22. Danley PD, Kocher TD. 2001. Speciation in rapidly diverging systems: lessons from Lake Malawi. Mol. Ecol. 10:1075-86
23. Day JJ, Cotton JA, Barraclough TG. 2008. Tempo and mode of diversification of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes. PLOS ONE 3:e1730
24. Donges JF, Donner RV, Trauth MH, Marwan N, Schellnhuber HJ, Kurths J. 2011. Nonlinear detection of paleoclimate-variability transitions possibly related to human evolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108:20422-27
25. Duftner N, Sefc KM, Koblmuller S, Salzburger W, Taborsky M, Sturmbauer C. 2007. Parallel evolution of facial stripe patterns in the Neolamprologus brichardi/pulcher species complex endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 45:706-15
26. Eggermont H, Verschuren D. 2003. Impact of soil erosion in disturbed tributary drainages on the benthic invertebrate fauna of Lake Tanganyika, East Africa. Biol. Conserv. 113:99-109
27. Eldredge N, Gould SJ. 1972. Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism. In Models in Paleobiology, ed. TJM Schopf, pp. 82-115. San Francisco, CA: Freeman, Cooper
28. Elmer KR, Reggio C, Wirth T, Verheyen E, Salzburger W, Meyer A. 2009. Pleistocene desiccation in East Africa bottlenecked but did not extirpate the adaptive radiation of Lake Victoria haplochromine cichlid fishes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106:13404-9
29. Feibel CS. 1993. Freshwater stingrays from the Plio-Pleistocene of the Turkana Basin, Kenya and Ethiopia. Lethaia 26:359-66
30. Feibel CS. 1997. A terrestrial auxiliary stratotype point and section for the Plio-Pleistocene boundary in the Turkana Basin, East Africa. Quat. Int. 40:73-79
31. Feibel CS. 2011. A geological history of the Turkana Basin. Evol. Anthropol. 20:206-16
32. Fryer G. 1959. The trophic interrelationships and ecology of some littoral communities of Lake Nyasa with especial reference to the fishes, and a discussion of the evolution of a group of rock-frequenting Cichlidae. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 132:153-281
33. Fryer G, Iles TD. 1972. The Cichlid Fishes of the Great Lakes of Africa: Their Biology and Evolution. Edinburgh, Scot. : Oliver & Boyd
34. Gavrilets S, Losos JB. 2009. Adaptive radiation: contrasting theory with data. Science 323:732-37
35. Gavrilets S, Vose A. 2005. Dynamic patterns of adaptive radiation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:18040-45
36. Genner MJ, Knight ME, Haesler MP, Turner GF. 2010. Establishment and expansion of Lake Malawi rock fish populations after a dramatic Late Pleistocene lake level rise. Mol. Ecol. 19:170-82
37. Genner MJ, Todd JA, Michel E, Erpenbeck D, Jimoh A, et al. 2007. Amassing diversity in an ancient lake: evolution of a morphologically diverse parthenogenetic gastropod assemblage in LakeMalawi. Mol. Ecol. 16:517-30
38. Greenwood PH. 1984. What is a species flock? In Evolution of Fish Species Flocks, ed. AA Echelle, I Kornfield, pp. 13-20. Orono: Univ. Maine Press
39. Gunter HM, Fan S, Xiong F, Franchini P, Fruciano C, Meyer A. 2013. Shaping development through mechanical strain: the transcriptional basis of diet-induced phenotypic plasticity in a cichlid fish. Mol. Ecol. 22:4516-31
40. Gurdebeke P, Van Bocxlaer B. 2013. Conchological differentiation in an ongoing radiation of Lanistes gastropods from ancient Lake Malawi: How adaptive is shell morphology? Geol. Belg. 16:118-19
41. Harmon LJ, Matthews B, Des Roches S, Chase JM, Shurin JB, Schluter D. 2009. Evolutionary diversification in stickleback affects ecosystem functioning. Nature 458:1167-70
42. Harrison T. 1997. Neogene Paleontology of the Manonga Valley, Tanzania. A Window into the Evolutionary History of East Africa. New York: Plenum
43. Hecky RE. 1993. The eutrophication of Lake Victoria. Proc. Int. Assoc. Theor. Appl. Limnol. 25:39-48
44. Hecky RE, Mugidde R, Ramlal PS, Talbot MR, Kling GW. 2010. Multiple stressors cause rapid ecosystem change in Lake Victoria. Freshw. Biol. 55:19-42
45. Hubbs CL, Lagler KF, Smith GR. 2004. Fishes of the Great Lakes Region, Revised Edition. Ann Arbor: Univ. Michigan Press
46. Johnson TC, Scholz CA, Talbot MR, Kelts K, Ricketts RD, et al. 1996. Late Pleistocene desiccation of Lake Victoria and rapid evolution of cichlid fishes. Science 273:1091-93
47. Joyce DA, Lunt DH, Genner MJ, Turner GF, Bills R, Seehausen O. 2011. Repeated colonization and hybridization in Lake Malawi cichlids. Curr. Biol. 21:R108-9
48. Koblmuller S, Duftner N, Sefc KM, Aibara M, Stipacek M, et al. 2007. Reticulate phylogeny of gastropodshell-breeding cichlids from Lake Tanganyika-the result of repeated introgressive hybridization. BMC Evol. Biol. 7:7
49. Koblmuller S, Salzburger W, Sturmbauer C. 2004. Evolutionary relationships in the sand-dwelling cichlid lineage of Lake Tanganyika suggest multiple colonization of rocky habitats and convergent origin of biparental mouthbrooding. J. Mol. Evol. 58:79-96
50. Kocher TD. 2004. Adaptive evolution and explosive speciation: the cichlid fish model. Nat. Rev. Genet. 5:288-98
51. Kocher TD, Conroy JA, McKaye KR, Stauffer JR. 1993. Similar morphologies of cichlid fish in Lakes Tanganyika and Malawi are due to convergence. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2:158-65
52. Kosswig C. 1947. Selective mating as a factor for speciation in cichlid fish of East African lakes. Nature 159:604-5
53. Liem KF. 1973. Evolutionary strategies and morphological innovations: cichlid pharyngeal jaws. Syst. Zool. 22:425-41
54. Loh YH, Bezault E, Muenzel FM, Roberts RB, Swofford R, et al. 2013. Origins of shared genetic variation in African cichlids. Mol. Biol. Evol. 30:906-17
55. Lowe-McConnell R. 1993. Fish faunas of the African Great Lakes: origins, diversity and vulnerability. Conserv. Biol. 7:634-43
56. Maan ME, Sefc KM. 2013. Colour variation in cichlid fish: developmental mechanisms, selective pressures and evolutionary consequences. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 24:516-28
57. Mahler DL, Ingram T, Revell LJ, Losos JB. 2013. Exceptional convergence on the macroevolutionary landscape in island lizard radiations. Science 341:292-95
58. Mandahl-Barth G. 1972. The freshwater Mollusca of Lake Malawi. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 86:257-89
59. Martens K. 1997. Speciation in ancient lakes. Trends Ecol. Evol. 12:177-82
60. McCune AR, Lovejoy NR. 1998. The relative rate of sympatric and allopatric speciation in fishes. In Endless Forms: Species and Speciation, ed. DJ Howard, SH Berlocher, pp. 172-85. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
61. McGlue MM, Soreghan MJ, Michel E, Todd JA, Cohen AS, et al. 2010. Environmental controls on shell-rich facies in tropical lacustrine rifts: a view from Lake Tanganyika's littoral. Palaios 25:426-38
62. McIntyre PB, Michel E, France K, Rivers A, Haizimana P, Cohen AS. 2005. Individual and assemblage level effects of anthropogenic sedimentation on snails in Lake Tanganyika. Conserv. Biol. 19:171-81
63. Meyer A, Kocher TD, Basasibwaki P, Wilson AC. 1990. Monophyletic origin of Lake Victoria cichlid fishes suggested by mitochondrial DNA sequences. Nature 347:550-53
64. Michel E. 1994. Why snails radiate: a review of gastropod evolution in long-lived lakes, both recent and fossil. Arch. Hydrobiol. 44:285-317
65. Michel E, Todd JA, Cleary DFR, Kingma I, Cohen AS, Genner MJ. 2004. Scales of endemism: challenges for conservation and incentives for evolutionary studies in a gastropod species flock from Lake Malawi. J. Conchol. 3:155-72
66. Moore JES. 1898. On the hypothesis that Lake Tanganyika represents an old Jurassic sea. Q. J. Microsc. Sci. 41:303-21
67. Muschick M, Indermaur A, SalzburgerW. 2012. Convergent evolution within an adaptive radiation of cichlid fishes. Curr. Biol. 22:2362-68
68. Nori M. 1997. Structure of littoral fish communities. In Fish Communities in Lake Tanganyika, ed. HKawanabe, M Hori, M Nagoshi, pp. 277-98. Kyoto, Jpn. : Kyoto Univ. Press
69. O'Reilly CM, Alin SR, Plisnier PD, Cohen AS, McKee BA. 2003. Climate change decreases aquatic ecosystem productivity of Lake Tanganyika, Africa. Nature 424:766-68
70. Otu MK, Ramlal P, Wilkinson P, Hall RI, Hecky RE. 2011. Paleolimnological evidence of the effects of recent cultural eutrophication during the last 200 years in LakeMalawi, East Africa. J. Great Lakes Res. 37:61-74
71. Park LE, Martens K, Cohen AS. 2002. Phylogenetic relationships of Gomphocythere (Ostracoda) in Lake Tanganyika, East Africa. J. Crustac. Biol. 22:15-27
72. Poll M. 1946. Révision de la faune ichthyologique du Lac Tanganika. Ann. Mus. Congo Belge Zool. Ser. 4:141-364
73. Regan CT. 1921. The cichlid fishes of Lake Nyassa. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1921:675-727
74. Rüber L, Adams DC. 2001 Evolutionary convergence of body shape and trophic morphology in cichlids from Lake Tanganyika. J. Evol. Biol. 14, 325-32
75. Salzburger W. 2009. The interaction of sexually and naturally selected traits in the adaptive radiations of cichlid fishes. Mol. Ecol. 18:169-85
76. Salzburger W, Baric S, Sturmbauer C. 2002. Speciation via introgressive hybridization in East African cichlids? Mol. Ecol. 11:619-25
77. Salzburger W, Mack T, Verheyen E, Meyer A. 2005. Out of Tanganyika: genesis, explosive speciation, keyinnovations and phylogeography of the haplochromine cichlid fishes. BMC Evol. Biol. 5:17
78. Salzburger W, Meyer A. 2004. The species flocks of East African cichlid fishes: recent advances in molecular phylogenetics and population genetics. Naturwissenschaften 91:277-90
79. Santos ME, SalzburgerW. 2012. How cichlids diversify. Science 338:619-21
80. Sato T, Gashagaza MM. 1997. Shell-brooding cichlid fishes in Lake Tanganyika: their habitats and mating systems. In Fish Communities in Lake Tanganyika, ed. H Kawanabe, M Hori, M Nagoshi, pp. 219-40. Kyoto, Jpn. : Kyoto Univ. Press
81. Schluter D. 2000. The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
82. Schluter D. 2009. Evidence for ecological speciation and its alternative. Science 323:737-41
83. Schultheiß R, Van Bocxlaer B, Riedel F, von Rintelen T, Albrecht C. 2014. Disjunct distributions of freshwater snails testify to a central role of the Congo system in shaping biogeographical patterns in Africa. BMC Evol. Biol. 14:42
84. Schultheiß R, Van Bocxlaer B, Wilke T, Albrecht C. 2009. Old fossils-young species: evolutionary history of an endemic gastropod assemblage in Lake Malawi. Proc. R. Soc. B 276:2837-46
85. Schultheiß R, Wilke T, Jørgensen A, Albrecht C. 2011. The birth of an endemic species flock: demographic history of the Bellamya group (Gastropoda, Viviparidae) in Lake Malawi. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 102:130-43
86. Schwarzer J, Swartz ER, Vreven E, Snoeks J, Cotterill FPD, et al. 2012. Repeated trans-watershed hybridization among haplochromine cichlids (Cichlidae) was triggered by Neogene landscape evolution. Proc. R. Soc. B 279:4389-98
87. Seehausen O. 2004. Hybridization and adaptive radiation. Trends Ecol. Evol. 19:198-207
88. SeehausenO. 2006. African cichlid fish: amodel system in adaptive radiation research. Proc. R. Soc. B 273:1987-98
89. Seehausen O, Schluter D. 2004. Male-male competition and nuptial-colour displacement as a diversifying force in Lake Victoria cichlid fishes. Proc. R. Soc. B 271:1345-53
90. Seehausen O, Terai Y, Magalhaes IS, Carleton KL, Mrosso HD, et al. 2008. Speciation through sensory drive in cichlid fish. Nature 455:620-26
91. Seehausen O, van Alphen JJM, Witte F. 1997. Cichlid fish diversity threatened by eutrophication that curbs sexual selection. Science 277:1808-11
92. Snoeks J. 2001. Cichlid diversity, speciation and systematics: examples from the Great African Lakes. J. Aquaricult. Aquat. Sci. 9:150-66
93. Spigel RH, Coulter GW. 1996. Comparison of hydrology and physical limnology of the East African Great Lakes: Tanganyika, Malawi, Victoria, Kivu and Turkana (with reference to some North American Great Lakes). In The Limnology, Climatology and Paleoclimatology of the East African Lakes, ed. TC Johnson, E Odada, pp. 103-40. Toronto: Gordon and Breach
94. Standley CJ, Wade CM, Stothard JR. 2011. A fresh insight into transmission of schistosomiasis: a misleading tale of Biomphalaria in Lake Victoria. PLOS ONE 6:e26563
95. Stewart KM. 2001. The freshwater fish of Neogene Africa (Miocene-Pleistocene): systematics and biogeography. Fish Fish. 2:177-230
96. Streelman JT, Danley PD. 2003. The stages of vertebrate evolutionary radiation. Trends Ecol. Evol. 18:126-31
97. Sturmbauer C, Baric S, Salzburger W, Ruber L, Verheyen E. 2001. Lake level fluctuations synchronize genetic divergences of cichlid fishes in African lakes. Mol. Biol. Evol. 18:144-54
98. Sturmbauer C, Salzburger W, Duftner N, Schelly R, Koblmuller S. 2010. Evolutionary history of the Lake Tanganyika cichlid tribe Lamprologini (Teleostei: Perciformes) derived from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA data. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 57:266-84
99. Tiercelin JJ, Lezzar KE. 2002. A 300 million years history of rift lakes in Central and East Africa: an updated broad review. In The East African Great Lakes: Limnology, Paleolimnology and Biodiversity, ed. E Odada, E Olago, pp. 3-60. Dordrecht, The Neth. : Kluwer Acad. Publ.
100. Tierney JE, Mayes MT, Meyer N, Johnson C, Swarzenski PW, et al. 2010. Late-twentieth-century warming in Lake Tanganyika unprecedented since AD 500. Nat. Geosci. 3:422-25
101. Trauth MH, Maslin MA, Deino A, Strecker MR. 2005. Late Cenozoic moisture history of East Africa. Science 309:2051-53
102. Turner GF, Burrows MT. 1995. Amodel of sympatric speciation by sexual selection. Proc. R. Soc. B 260:287-92
103. Vadeboncoeur Z, McIntyre PB, Vander Zanden MJ. 2011. Borders of biodiversity: life at the edge of the world's large lakes. Bioscience 61:526-37
104. Van Bocxlaer B, Hunt G. 2013. Morphological stasis in an ongoing gastropod radiation from Lake Malawi. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 110:13892-97
105. Van Bocxlaer B, Salenbien W, Praet N, Verniers J. 2012a. Stratigraphy and paleoenvironments of the early to middle Holocene Chipalamawamba Beds (Malawi Basin, Africa). Biogeosciences 9:4497-512
106. Van Bocxlaer B, Schultheiß R, Plisnier PD, Albrecht C. 2012b. Does the decline of gastropods in deep water herald ecosystem change in Lakes Malawi and Tanganyika? Freshw. Biol. 57:1733-44
107. Van Bocxlaer B, Van Damme D, Feibel CS. 2008. Gradual versus punctuated equilibrium evolution in the Turkana Basin molluscs: evolutionary events or biological invasions? Evolution 62:511-20
108. Van Damme D, Pickford M. 1995. The late Cenozoic ampullariidae (mollusca, gastropoda) of the Albertine Rift Valley (Uganda-Zaire). Hydrobiologia 316:1-32
109. Van Damme D, Pickford M. 1999. The late Cenozoic Viviparidae (Mollusca, Gastropoda) of the Albertine Rift valley (Uganda-Congo). Hydrobiologia 390:171-217
110. Van Damme D, Pickford M. 2003. The late Cenozoic Thiaridae (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Cerithiodea) of the Albertine Rift valley (Uganda-Congo) and their bearing on the origin and evolution of the Tanganyikan thalassoid malacofauna. Hydrobiologia 498:1-83
111. Van Neer W. 1992. New Late Tertiary fish fossils from the Sinda region, Eastern Zaire. Afr. Study Monogr. 17(Suppl.):27-47
112. Verheyen E, Salzburger W, Snoeks J, Meyer A. 2003. Origin of the superflock of cichlid fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa. Science 300:325-29
113. Vermeij GJ, Covich AP. 1978. Coevolution of freshwater gastropods and their predators. Am. Nat. 112:833-43
114. Verschuren D, Johnson TC, Kling HJ, Edgington DN, Leavitt PR, et al. 2002. History and timing of human impact on Lake Victoria, East Africa. Proc. R. Soc. B 269:289-94
115. von Sternberg R, Cumberlidge N. 1999. A cladistic analysis of Platythelphusa A. Milne-Edwards, 1887, from Lake Tanganyika, East Africa (Decapoda: Potamoidea: Platythelphusidae) with comments on the phylogenetic position of the group. J. Nat. Hist. 33:493-511
116. Wagner CA, Harmon LJ, Seehausen O. 2012. Ecological opportunity and sexual selection together predict adaptive radiation. Nature 487:366-69
117. West K, Cohen AS. 1996. Shell microstructure of gastropods from Lake Tanganyika, Africa: adaptation, convergent evolution, and escalation. Evolution 50:672-81
118. West K, Michel E. 2000. The dynamics of endemic diversification: Molecular phylogeny suggests explosive origin of the thiarid gastropods of Lake Tanganyika. In Biology of Ancient Lakes: Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution, ed. A Rossiter, H Kawanabe, pp. 331-54. London/San Diego: Academic
119. West K, Michel E, Todd JA, Brown DS, Clabaugh J. 2003. The Gastropods of Lake Tanganyika: Diagnostic Key, Classification, and Notes on the Fauna. Int. Assoc. Theor. Appl. Limnol. Occasional Publ. http://www. limnology. org/pubs/tanganyika. shtml
120. Williamson PG. 1981. Palaeontological documentation of speciation in Cenozoic molluscs from Turkana Basin. Nature 293:437-43
121. Williamson PG. 1985. Evidence for an early Plio-Pleistocene rainforest expansion in East Africa. Nature 315:487-89
122. Wilson AB, Glaubrecht M, Meyer A. 2004. Ancient lakes as evolutionary reservoirs: evidence from the thalassoid gastropods of Lake Tanganyika. Proc. R. Soc. B 271:529-36
123. Witte F, Goldschmidt T, Wanink J, van Ojen M, Goudswaard K, et al. 1992. The destruction of an endemic species flock: quantitative data on the decline of the haplochromine cichlids of Lake Victoria. Environ. Biol. Fishes 34:1-28
124. Witte F, Seehausen O, Wanink JH, Kishe-Machumu MA, Rensing M, Goldschmidt T. 2013. Cichlid species diversity in naturally and anthropogenically turbid habitats of Lake Victoria, East Africa. Aquat. Sci. 75:169-83
125. Woltereck R. 1931. Wie entsteht eine endemische Rasse oder Art? Biol. Zentralbl. 51:231-53
126. Woodward SP. 1859. On some new freshwater shells from Central Africa. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 27:348-49
127. Worthington EB. 1954. Speciation of fishes in African lakes. Nature 173:1064-67
128. Wouters K, Martens K. 2000. On the taxonomic position of the genera Archaeocyprideis and Kavalocythereis of the Cyprideis species flock (Crustacea: Ostracodea) in Lake Tanganyika (East Africa) with the first description of the appendages. Bull. Inst. R. Sci. Nat. Belg. 70:207-16
129. Wouters K, Martens K. 2001. On the Cyprideis species flock (Crustacea, Ostracoda) in Lake Tanganyika, with the description of four new species. Hydrobiologia 450:111-27