Opportunity denied: Limiting black women to devalued work

Opportunity Denied: Limiting Black Women to Devalued Work

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 1-190

  Branch, Enobong Hannah ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS   (United States)

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EID: 84906472484     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (304)

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67. Jones, Labor of Love, 55.
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71. Gutman, The Black Family, 166.
72. Foner, Reconstruction, 134.
73. Gutman, The Black Family, 166.
74. Foner, Reconstruction, 129.
75. Major General William T. Sherman, Special Field Orders, No. 15, January 16, 1865, Headquarters Military Division of the Mississippi, Orders & Circulars, series 44, Adjutant General's Office, Record Group 94, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D. C.
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77. Foner, Reconstruction, 160.
78. Glenn, Unequal Freedom, 70.
79. Jones, Labor of Love, 62.
80. Gutman, The Black Family, 167.
81. White, Ar'n't I a Woman?, 182.
82. Foner, Reconstruction, 138-139.
83. Gutman, The Black Family, 168, italics in original.
84. William H. Chafe, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstad, Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell About Life in the Segregated South (New York: The New Press, 2001), 205.
85. Jones, Labor of Love, 58-59.
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87. Glenn, Unequal Freedom, 102.
88. Jones, Labor of Love, 46.
89. Glenn, Unequal Freedom, 100.
90. http://usa.ipums.org/usa/voliii/items1870.shtml#desc.
91. Glenn, Unequal Freedom, 101.
92. Margo Anderson Conk, "Occupational Classification in the United States Census: 1870-1940", Journal of Interdisciplinary History 9, no. 1(1978):111-130;
93. Margo Anderson Conk, "Accuracy, Efficiency, and Bias: The Interpretation of Women's Work in the U. S. Census of Occupations, 1890-1940", Historical Methods 14(1981):65-72.
94. Collected from the folk tradition by Colonial Williamsburg in 1960; see http://www.history.org/history/teaching/enewsletter/february03/worksongs.cfm.
95. Jones, Labor of Love, 58.
96. Elaine Ellis, "Women of the Cotton Fields", in Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal, An African American Anthology, ed. Manning Marable and Leith Mullings (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 326.
97. Jones, Labor of Love, 260.
98. Mamie E. Locke, "From Three-Fifths to Zero: Implications of the Constitution for African-American Women, 1787-1870", in "We Specialize in the Wholly Impossible": A Reader in Black Woman's History, ed. Darlene Clark Hines (Brooklyn, N. Y.: Carlson Publishing, 1995), 226.
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100. Glenn, Unequal Freedom, 103.
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102. David M. Katzman, Seven Days a Week: Women and Domestic Service in Industrializing America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 55.
103. Joan S. Wang, "Race, Gender, and Laundry Work: The Roles of Chinese Laundrymen and American Women in the United States, 1850-1950", Journal of American Ethnic History 20, no. 1(2004):60.
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108. Hasia R. Diner, Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), 89.
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110. David M. Katzman, Seven Days a Week: Women and Domestic Service in Industrializing America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 66.
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128. St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Clayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 246.
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130. James S. Cunningham and Nadja Zalokar, "The Economic Progress of Black Women, 1940-1980: Occupational Distribution and Relative Wages", Industrial and Labor Relations Review 45, no. 3(1992):550.
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132. Jones, Labor of Love, 237.
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134. Callis and Greene, "The Employment of Negroes", 76.
135. "Domestic Service", New York Times, July 7, 1872.
136. Callis and Greene, "The Employment of Negroes", 75.
137. C. Douglas Sager to District of Columbia Employment Center, October 3, 1939, Box 193-42, Folder 8, Myra Colson Callis Papers, Moorland Spingarn Research Center, Howard University, Washington, D. C.
138. Phyllis Palmer, Domesticity and Dirt: Housewives and Domestic Servants in the United States, 1920-1945 (Philadelphia, Pa.: Temple University Press, 1989), 8-9.
139. Callis and Greene, "The Employment of Negroes", 83.
140. Mary Anderson, "An Occupational Analysis of Household Employment", 1938, Box 193-45, Folder 2, Myra Colson Callis Papers, Moorland Spingarn Research Center, Howard University, Washington, D. C.
141. Ruth B. Greig to District of Columbia Employment Center, August 23, 1940, Box 193-42, Folder 7, Myra Colson Callis Papers, Moorland Spingarn Research Center, Howard University, Washington, D. C.
142. Christine E. Bose, Women in 1900: Gateway to the Political Economy of the 20th Century (Philadelphia, Pa.: Temple University Press, 2001), 13.
143. Margo Anderson Conk, "Accuracy, Efficiency, and Bias: The Interpretation of Women's Work in the U. S. Census of Occupations, 1890-1940", Historical Methods 14(1981):65-72.
144. Enobong Hannah Branch, "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Black Women, a Century in the Bottom Class, 1860-1960" (PhD diss., State University of New York at Albany, 2007).
145. Norris W. Preyer, "The Historian, The Slave, and the Ante-Bellum Textile Industry", Journal of Negro History 46, no. 2(1961):78.
146. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present (New York: Vintage Books, 1986), 136.
147. Dolores Janiewski, "Sisters under Their Skins: Southern Working Women, 1880-1950", in Black Women in United States History, vol. 3, ed. Darlene Clark Hine, (Brooklyn, N. Y.: Carlson Publishing, 1990), 789-793.
148. Evelyn Nakano Glenn, "Racial Ethnic Women's Labor: The Intersection of Race, Gender, and Class Oppression", in Gender, Family, and Economy: The Triple Overlap, ed. Rae Lesser Blumberg (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1991), 187.
149. Janiewski, "Sisters under Their Skins", 792.
150. Beverly W. Jones, "Race, Sex, and Class: Black Female Tobacco Workers in Durham, North Carolina, 1920-1940, and the Development of Female Consciousness", in Black Women in United States History, vol. 3, ed. Darlene Clark Hine (Brooklyn, N. Y.: Carlson Publishing, 1990), 808-809.
151. Mary Elizabeth Pidgeon, Negro Women in Industry in 15 States, Women's Bureau bulletin no. 70 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1929), 16, Box 193-46, Folder 7, Myra Colson Callis Papers, Moorland Spingarn Research Center, Howard University, Washington, D. C.
152. Jones, "Race, Sex, and Class", 808.
153. Pidgeon, Negro Women in Industry in 15 States, 16.
154. Jones, "Race, Sex, and Class", 811.
155. Dolores Janiewski "Seeking a 'New Day and a New Way': Black Women and Unions in the Southern Tobacco Industry", in Black Women in United States History, vol. 3, ed. Darlene Clark Hine (Brooklyn, N. Y.: Carlson Publishing, 1990), 764.
156. Milton C. Sernett, Bound for the Promised Land: African American Religion and the Great Migration (Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press, 1997).
157. David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York: Verso Books, 2007), 133-137.
158. Alma Herbst, The Negro in the Slaughtering and Meat-Packing Industry in Chicago (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1932), xx.
159. Cliff Brown, "The Role of Employers in Split Labor Markets: An Event-Structure Analysis of Racial Conflict and AFLOrganizing, 1917-1919", Social Forces 79, no. 2(2000):665.
160. Stanley Lieberson, A Piece of Pie: Blacks and White Immigrants since 1880 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 339.
161. Herman D. Bloch, The Circle of Discrimination (New York: New York University Press, 1969), chapter 5.
162. Herbst, The Negro in the Slaughtering and Meat-Packing Industry in Chicago, 2.
163. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (New York: Schocken Books, 1996), 332-333.
164. Herbst, The Negro in the Slaughtering and Meat-Packing Industry in Chicago, 74-75.
165. Eastern Pennsylvania, Colored Women as Industrial Workers in Philadelphia (Philadelphia, Pa.: Consumers' League of Eastern Pennsylvania, 1920), 7, Box 193-45, Folder 11, Myra Colson Callis Papers, Moorland Spingarn Research Center, Howard University, Washington, D. C.
166. Glenn, "Racial Ethnic Women's Labor", 178.
167. Janiewski, "Sisters under Their Skins", 763.
168. Eastern Pennsylvania, Colored Women as Industrial Workers in Philadelphia, 7.
169. Nelle Swartz, A New Day for the Colored Woman Worker: A Study of Colored Women in Industry in New York City (New York: Consumers' League of the City of New York, 1919), 5, Box 193-45, Folder 10, Myra Colson Callis Papers, Moorland Spingarn Research Center, Howard University, Washington, D. C.
170. Eastern Pennsylvania, Colored Women as Industrial Workers in Philadelphia, 8-9.
171. Swartz, A New Day for the Colored Woman Worker, 17.
172. Eastern Pennsylvania, Colored Women as Industrial Workers in Philadelphia, 27.
173. Karen Tucker Anderson, "Last Hired, First Fired: Black Women Workers during World War II", Journal of American History 69, no. 1(1982):83-84.
174. Jones, Labor of Love, 238.
175. Anderson, "Last Hired, First Fired", 85.
176. Jones, Labor of Love, 135.
177. Anderson, "Last Hired, First Fired", 86.
178. "Conference on Equal Opportunity", Monthly Labor Review 79(1956):33.
179. Jones, Labor of Love, 178-179.
180. "Conference on Equal Opportunity", 33.
181. Jones, Labor of Love, 252-253.
182. Anderson, "Last Hired, First Fired", 87.
183. Jones, Labor of Love, 252.
184. Michael Keith Honey, Black Workers Remember: An Oral History of Segregation, Unionism, and the Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 95-96.
185. Anderson, "Last Hired, First Fired", 96.
186. Honey, Black Workers Remember, 150-154.
187. Robert Blauner, Still the Big News: Racial Oppression in America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), 25.
188. Melvin Oliver and Thomas Shapiro, Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality (New York: Routledge, 1995), 5.
189. R. W. Connell, Gender and Power (Oxford: Polity Press, 1987), 104.
190. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, "Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation", American Sociological Review 62, no. 3(1997):470.
191. Evelyn Nakano Glenn, "From Servitude to Service Work: Historical Continuities in the Racial Division of Paid Reproductive Labor", Signs 18(1992):34.
192. Jacqueline Jones, American Work: Four Centuries of Black and White Labor (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998), 13.
193. Bonilla-Silva, "Rethinking Racism", 470.
194. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma, vols. 1 and 2 (New York: Harper & Row, 1944, 1962), 2:575
195. Barbara Reskin, "Sex Segregation in the Workplace", Annual Review of Sociology 19(1993):242.
196. Stanley Lieberson, A Piece of Pie: Blacks and White Immigrants since 1880 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 296.
197. Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1995).
198. Scott Coltrane, Family Man: Fatherhood, Housework, and Gender Equity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 27.
199. Enobong Hannah Branch, "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Black Women, a Century in the Bottom Class, 1860-1960" (PhD diss., State University of New York at Albany, 2007).
200. Barbara M. Posada, "Crossing the Collar Line: Working Women at Desks, Switchboards, and Tables", Journal of Urban History 23, no. 6(1997):778.
201. Carole Marks, "The Bone and Sinew of the Race: Black Women, Domestic Service, and Labor Migration", Marriage and Family Review 19(1993):164.
202. Jones, Labor of Love, 179.
203. Addie W. Hunter, "A Colored Working Girl and Race Prejudice", Crisis 6(April 1916):32-34
204. Jones, Labor of Love, 179.
205. Edward William Noland and Edward Wight Bakke, Workers Wanted: A Study of Employers' Hiring Policies, Preferences and Practices in New Haven and Charlotte (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1977), 66-67.
206. Jones, Labor of Love, 179.
207. Julia Kirk Blackwelder, "Women in the Work Force: Atlanta, New Orleans, and San Antonio, 1930-1940", Journal of Urban History 4, no. 2(May 1978):342.
208. Francille Rusan Wilson", 'All of the Glory⋯ Faded⋯ Quickly': Sadie T. M. Alexander and Black Professional Women, 1920-1950", in Sister Circle: Black Women and Work, ed. Sharon Harley and the Black Women and Work Collectives (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 166.
209. Quote from oral history interview of Sadie T. M. Alexander by Walter M. Phillips, December 10, 1977, Urban History Archives, Temple University, Philadelphia
210. Wilson, "All of the Glory⋯ Faded⋯ Quickly."
211. Bart Landry, Black Working Wives: Pioneers of the American Family Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 74.
212. Hayward Derrick Horton, Beverlyn Lundy Allen, Cedric Herring, and Melvin E. Thomas, "Lost in the Storm: The Sociology of the Black Working Class, 1850-1990", American Sociological Review 65, no. 1(2000):128-137.
213. Horton et al., "Lost in the Storm", 132.
214. Jones, Labor of Love, 161.
215. Marks, "The Bone and Sinew of the Race", 165.
216. Jones, Labor of Love, 4.
217. Sojourner Truth, "Ain't I a Woman?" in Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal, An African American Anthology, ed. Manning Marable and Leith Mullings (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 67-68.
218. Aida Hurtado, "Relating to Privilege: Seduction and Rejection in the Subordination of White Women and Women of Color", Signs 14(1989):845.
219. Landry, Black Working Wives, 56.
220. Hurtado, "Relating to Privilege", 845.
221. Landry, Black Working Wives, 58.
222. Glenn, "From Servitude to Service Work", 8.
223. Katie G. Cannon, "The Emergence of a Black Feminist Consciousness", in Feminist Interpretations of the Bible, ed. Letty M. Russell (Philadelphia, Pa.: Westminster Press, 1985), 30.
224. Jones, Labor of Love, 18.
225. Laurie B. Green, "'Where Would the Negro Women Apply for Work?': Gender, Race, and Labor in Wartime Memphis", Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas 3, no. 3(2006):98.
226. Michael Keith Honey, Black Workers Remember: An Oral History of Segregation, Unionism, and the Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 287.
227. Green, "Where Would the Negro Women Apply for Work?", 96.
228. Honey, Black Workers Remember, 287.
229. Green, "Where Would the Negro Women Apply for Work?", 97.
230. Barbara F. Reskin and Heidi I. Hartmann, Women's Work, Men's Work: Sex Segregation on the Job (Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press, 1986).
231. Glenn, "From Servitude to Service Work."
232. Barbara Reskin, "Occupational Segregation by Race and Ethnicity among Women Workers", in African-American and Latina Women at Work, ed. Irene Browne (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1999), 183.
233. Manning Marable, How Capitalism Underdeveloped Black America: Problems in Race, Political Economy, and Society (London: Pluto Press, 2000), 70.
234. Frances Beale, "Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female", in The Black Woman: An Anthology, ed. Toni Cade (New York: Signet, 1970), 94.
235. Beverly Lindsay, "Minority Women in America: Black American, Native American, Chicana, and Asian American Women", in The Study of Women: Enlarging Perspectives of Social Reality, ed. Eloise C. Synder (New York: Harper and Row, 1979), 324.
236. Deborah King, "Multiple Jeopardy, Multiple Consciousness: The Context of Black Feminist Ideology", Signs 14(1988):46.
237. Charisse Jones and Kumea Shorter-Gooden, Shifting: The Double Lives of Black Women in America (New York: Harper Perennial, 2003).
238. Marable, How Capitalism Underdeveloped Black America, 85.
239. E. Wilbur Bock, "Farmer's Daughter Effect: The Case of the Negro Female Professionals", Phylon (Spring 1969): 21.
240. Edward William Noland and Edward Wight Bakke, Workers Wanted: A Study of Employers' Hiring Policies, Preferences and Practices in New Haven and Charlotte (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1977), 65.
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