Pulmonary blood flow and pulmonary hypertension: Is the pulmonary circulation flowophobic or flowophilic?

Pulmonary Circulation

Volumn 2, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 327-339

  Kulik, Thomas J ^a  

^a BOSTON CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Pulmonary blood flow; Pulmonary hypertension; Shear stress

Indexed keywords

EID: 84905266368     PISSN: 20458932     EISSN: 20458940     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4103/2045-8932.101644     Document Type: Review

References (170)

1. Hoffman JI, Rudolph AM, Heymann MA. Pulmonary vascular disease with congenital heart lesions: pathologic features and causes. Circulation 1981;64:873-7.
2. Tian J, Fratz S, Hou Y, Lu Q, Görlach A, Hess J, et al. Delineating the angiogenic gene expression profile before pulmonary vascular remodeling in a lamb model of congenital heart disease. Physiol Genomics 2011; 43:87-98.
3. Li M, Scott DE, Shandas R, Stenmark KR, Tan W. High pulsatility flow induces adhesion molecule and cytokine mRNA expression in distal pulmonary artery endothelial cells. Ann Biomed Engg 2009;37:1082-92.
4. Chatterjee S, Fisher A. Shear Stress, Cell Signaling, and Pulmonary Vascular Remodeling. In: Yuan JX, Garcia J, Hales C, Rich S, Archer S, West J, editors. Textbook of Pulmonary Vascular Disease. New York: Springer; 2011. p. 796.
5. Dickinson MG, Bartelds B, Molema G, BorgdorffMA, Boersma B, Takens J, et al. Egr-1 expression during neointimal development in flow-associated pulmonary hypertension. Am J Pathol 2011;179:2199-209.
6. Chatzizisis YS, Coskun AU, Jonas M, Edelman ER, Feldman CL, Stone PH. Role of endothelial shear stress in the natural history of coronary atherosclerosis and vascular remodeling: Molecular, cellular, and vascular behavior. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;49:2379-93.
7. Davies PF. Hemodynamic shear stress and the endothelium in cardiovascular pathophysiology. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2009;6:16-26.
8. Chiu JJ, Chien S. Effects of disturbed flow on vascular endothelium: pathophysiological basis and clinical perspectives. Physiol Rev 2011;91:327-87.
9. Harrison DG, Widder J, Grumbach I, Chen W, Weber M, Searles C. Endothelial mechanotransduction, nitric oxide and vascular inflammation. J Intern Med 2006;259:351-63.
10. Laughlin MH, Newcomer SC, Bender SB. Importance of hemodynamic forces as signals for exercise-induced changes in endothelial cell phenotype. J Appl Physiol 2008;104:588-600.
11. Korshunov VA, Berk BC. Flow-induced vascular remodeling in the mouse: A model for carotid intima-media thickening. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003;23:2185-91.
12. Langille LB. Integrity of arterial endothelium following acute exposure to high shear stress. Biorheology 1984;21:333-46.
13. Ghorishi Z, Milstein JM, Poulain FR, Moon-Grady A, Tacy T, Bennett SH, et al. Shear stress paradigm for perinatal fractal arterial network remodeling in lambs with pulmonary hypertension and increased pulmonary blood flow. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2007;292:H3006-18.
14. Rabinovitch M, Bothwell T, Hayakawa BN, Williams WG, Trusler GA, Rowe RD, et al. Pulmonary artery endothelial abnormalities in patients with congenital heart defects and pulmonary hypertension. A correlation of light with scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Lab Invest 1986;55:632-53.
15. Haworth SG. Pulmonary vascular disease in different types of congenital heart disease. Implications for interpretation of lung biopsy findings in early childhood. Br Heart J 1984;52:557-71.
16. Yaginuma G, Mohri H, Takahashi T. Distribution of arterial lesions and collateral pathways in the pulmonary hypertension of congenital heart disease: A computer aided reconstruction study. Thorax 1990;45:586-90.
17. Cool CD, Stewart JS, Werahera P, Miller GJ, Williams RL, Voelkel NF, et al. Three-dimensional reconstruction of pulmonary arteries in plexiform pulmonary hypertension using cell-specific markers. Evidence for a dynamic and heterogeneous process of pulmonary endothelial cell growth. Am J Pathol 1999;155:411-9.
18. Linehan JH, Dawson C. Pulmonary Vascular Resistance (P:Q relations). In: Fishman A, editor. The Pulmonary Circulation: Normal and Abnormal. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press; 1990. p. 41-55.
19. Johnson LR, Rush JW, Turk JR, Price EM, Laughlin MH. Short-term exercise training increases ACh-induced relaxation and eNOS protein in porcine pulmonary arteries. J Appl Physiol 2001;90:1102-10.
20. Wilson PS, Thompson WJ, Moore TM, Khimenko PL, Taylor AE. Vasoconstriction increases pulmonary nitric oxide synthesis and circulating cyclic GMP. J Surg Res 1997;70:75-83.
21. Kumar S, Sud N, Fonseca FV, Hou Y, Black SM. Shear stress stimulates nitric oxide signaling in pulmonary arterial endothelial cells via a reduction in catalase activity: Role of protein kinase C delta. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2010;298:L105-16.
22. Cornfield DN, Chatfield BA, McQueston JA, McMurtry IF, Abman SH. Effects of birth-related stimuli on L-arginine-dependent pulmonary vasodilation in ovine fetus. Am J Physiol 1992;262:H1474-81.
23. Ogasa T, Nakano H, Ide H, Yamamoto Y, Sasaki N, Osanai S, et al. Flow-mediated release of nitric oxide in isolated, perfused rabbit lungs. J Appl Physiol 2001;91:363-70.
24. Chammas JH, Rickaby DA, Guarin M, Linehan JH, Hanger CC, Dawson CA. Flow-induced vasodilation in the ferret lung. J Appl Physiol 1997;83:495-502.
25. van Grondelle A, Worthen GS, Ellis D, Mathias MM, Murphy RC, Strife RJ, et al. Altering hydrodynamic variables influences PGI2 production by isolated lungs and endothelial cells. J Appl Physiol 1984;57:388-95.
26. Ellsworth ML, Gregory TJ, Newell JC. Pulmonary prostacyclin production with increased flow and sympathetic stimulation. J Appl Physiol 1983;55:1225-31.
27. Celermajer DS, Cullen S, Deanfield JE. Impairment of endothelium-dependent pulmonary artery relaxation in children with congenital heart disease and abnormal pulmonary hemodynamics. Circulation 1993;87:440-6.
28. Fratz S, Fineman JR, Görlach A, Sharma S, Oishi P, Schreiber C, et al. Early determinants of pulmonary vascular remodeling in animal models of complex congenital heart disease. Circulation 2011;123:916-23.
29. Rabinovitch M, Keane JF, Norwood WI, Castaneda AR, Reid L. Vascular structure in lung tissue obtained at biopsy correlated with pulmonary hemodynamic findings after repair of congenital heart defects. Circulation 1984;69:655-67.
30. Bush A, Busst C, Booth K, Knight WB, Shinebourne EA. Does prostacyclin enhance the selective pulmonary vasodilator effect of oxygen in children with congenital heart disease? Circulation 1986;74:135-44.
31. Braunlin EA, Moller JH, Patton C, Lucas RV Jr., Lillehei CW, Edwards J. Predictive value of lung biopsy in ventricular septal defect: long-term follow-up. J Am Coll Cardiol 1986;8:1113-8.
32. Haworth SG. Pulmonary vascular disease in ventricular septal defect: Structural and functional correlations in lung biopsies from 85 patients, with outcome of intracardiac repair. J Pathol 1987;152:157-68.
33. Wagenvoort CA. Morphological substrate for the reversibility and irreversibility of pulmonary hypertension. Eur Heart J 1988;9 Suppl J:7-12.
34. Haworth SG, Radley-Smith R, Yacoub M. Lung biopsy findings in transposition of the great arteries with ventricular septal defect: Potentially reversible pulmonary vascular disease is not always synonymous with operability. J Am Coll Cardiol 1987;9:327-33.
35. Epting CL, Wolfe RR, Abman SH, Deutsch GH, Ivy D. Reversal of pulmonary hypertension associated with plexiform lesions in congenital heart disease: A case report. Pediatr Cardiol 2002;23:182-5.
36. Dexter L. Atrial septal defect. Br Heart J 1956;18:209-25.
37. Storstein O, Efskind L. Atrial septal defect. Clinical and hemodynamic findings and results of open heart surgery. Acta Chir Scand 1963;125:52-68.
38. Craig RJ, Selzer A. Natural history and prognosis of atrial septal defect. Circulation 1968;37:805-15.
39. Haworth SG. Pulmonary vascular disease in secundum atrial septal defect in childhood. Am J Cardiol 1983;51:265-72.
40. Steele PM, Fuster V, Cohen M, Ritter DG, McGoon DC. Isolated atrial septal defect with pulmonary vascular obstructive disease--long-term follow-up and prediction of outcome after surgical correction. Circulation 1987;76:1037-42.
41. Bull C, Deanfield J, de Leval M, Stark J, Taylor JF, Macartney FJ. Correction of isolated secundum atrial septal defect in infancy. Arch Dis Child 1981;56:784-6.
42. Coles J, Sears G, Macdonald C. Atrial septal defect complicated by pulmonary hypertension--a long term follow-up. Ann Surg 1967;166:496-9.
43. Huang ZW, Fan ZX, Sun JT, Li WM, Gao YQ, Quan YH, et al. The short-and medium-term results of transcatheter closure of atrial septal defect with severe pulmonary arterial hypertension. Heart Vessels 2011.
44. Goetschmann S, Dibernardo S, Steinmann H, Pavlovic M, Sekarski N, Pfammatter JP. Frequency of severe pulmonary hypertension complicating “isolated” atrial septal defect in infancy. Am J Cardiol 2008;102:340-2.
45. Wood P. Diseases of the Heart and Circulation. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Co.; 1968.
46. Besterman E. Atrial Septal Defect with Pulmonary Hypertension. Br Heart J1961;23:587-98.
47. Cherian G, Uthaman CB, Durairaj M, Sukumar IP, Krishnaswami S, Jairaj PS, et al. Pulmonary hypertension in isolated secundum atrial septal defect: High frequency in young patients. Am Heart J 1983;105:952-7.
48. Edwards JE. Functional pathology of the pulmonary vascular tree in congenital cardiac disease. Circulation 1957;15:164-96.
49. Wagenvoort CA, Nauta J, van der Schaar PJ, Weeda HW, Wagenvoort N. Effect of flow and pressure on pulmonary vessels. A semiquantitative study based on lung biopsies. Circulation 1967;35:1028-37.
50. Rabinovitch M, Haworth SG, Castaneda AR, Nadas AS, Reid LM. Lung biopsy in congenital heart disease: A morphometric approach to pulmonary vascular disease. Circulation 1978;58:1107-22.
51. Sachweh JS, Daebritz SH, Hermanns B, Fausten B, Jockenhoevel S, Handt S, et al. Hypertensive pulmonary vascular disease in adults with secundum or sinus venosus atrial septal defect. Ann Thorac Surg 2006;81:207-13.
52. Khoury G, Hawes CR. Atrial septal defect associated with pulmonary hypertension in children living at high altitude. J Pediatr 1967;70:432-5.
53. Dalen JE, Bruce R, Cobb L. Interaction of chronic hypoxia of moderate altitude on pulmonary hypertension complicating defect of the atrial septum. N Engl J Med 1962;266:272-7.
54. Grover R. Chronic hypoxic pulmonary hypertension. In: Fishman A, editor. The Pulmonary Circulation: Normal and Abnormal. Mechanism, Management, and the National Registry. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Press; 1990. p. 283-99.
55. Newfeld EA, Wilson A, Paul MH, Reisch JS. Pulmonary vascular disease in total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage. Circulation 1980;61:103-9.
56. Gathman GE, Nadas AS. Total anomalous pulmonary venous connection: Clinical and physiologic observations of 75 pediatric patients. Circulation 1970;42:143-54.
57. Behrendt DM, Aberdeen E, Waterson DJ, Bonham-Carter RE. Total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage in infants. I. Clinical and hemodynamic findings, methods, and results of operation in 37 cases. Circulation 1972;46:347-56.
58. Mullins CE, el-Said GM, Neches WH, Williams RL, Vargo TA, Nihill MR, et al. Balloon atrial septostomy for total anomalous pulmonary venous return. Br Heart J 1973;35:752-7.
59. Meyrick B, Reid L. Pulmonary hypertension. Anatomic and physiologic correlates. Clin Chest Med 1983;4:199-217.
60. Krovetz LJ, Goldbloom S. Normal standards for cardiovascular data. II. Pressure and vascular resistances. Johns Hopkins Med J 1972;130:187-95.
61. Goodale FJ, Sanchez, Friedlich A, Scannell J, Myers G. Correlation of pulmonary arteriolar resistance with pulmonary vascular changes in patients with mitral stenosis before and after valvulotomy. N Engl J Med 1955;252:979-83.
62. Braunwald E, Braunwald NS, Ross J. Jr, Morrow A. Effects of mitral valve replacement on the pulmonary vascular dynamics of patients with pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 1965;273:509-14.
63. Zener JC, Hancock EW, Shumway NE, Harrison DC. Regression of extreme pulmonary hypertension after mitral valve surgery. Am J Cardiol 1972;30:820-6.
64. Levine MJ, Weinstein JS, Diver DJ, Berman AD, Wyman RM, Cunningham MJ, et al. Progressive improvement in pulmonary vascular resistance after percutaneous mitral valvuloplasty. Circulation 1989;79:1061-7.
65. Fawzy ME, Mimish L, Sivanandam V, Lingamanaicker J, Patel A, Khan B, et al. Immediate and long-term effect of mitral balloon valvotomy on severe pulmonary hypertension in patients with mitral stenosis. Am Heart J 1996;131:89-93.
66. Dev V, Shrivastava S. Time course of changes in pulmonary vascular resistance and the mechanism of regression of pulmonary arterial hypertension after balloon mitral valvuloplasty. Am J Cardiol 1991;67:439-42.
67. Wood P, Besterman E, Towers M, McIlroy MB. The effect of acetylcholine on pulmonary vascular resistance and left atrial pressure in mitral stenosis. Br Heart J 1957;19:279-86.
68. Ribeiro PA, al Zaibag M, Abdullah M. Pulmonary artery pressure and pulmonary vascular resistance before and after mitral balloon valvotomy in 100 patients with severe mitral valve stenosis. Am Heart J 1993;125:1110-4.
69. Hart SA, Krasuski RA, Wang A, Kisslo K, Harrison JK, Bashore TM. Pulmonary hypertension and elevated transpulmonary gradient in patients with mitral stenosis. J Heart Valve Dis 2010;19:708-15.
70. Borst H, McGreggor M, Whittenberger J, Berglund E. Influence of pulmonary arterial and left atrial pressures on pulmonary vascular resistance. Circ Res 1956;4:393-9.
71. Hermo-Weiler CI, Koizumi T, Parker R, Newman JH. Pulmonary vasoconstriction induced by mitral valve obstruction in sheep. J Appl Physiol 1998;85:1655-60.
72. Tandon HD, Kasturi J. Pulmonary vascular changes associated with isolated mitral stenosis in India. Br Heart J 1975;37:26-36.
73. Haworth SG, Hall SM, Panja M. Peripheral pulmonary vascular and airway abnormalities in adolescents with rheumatic mitral stenosis. Int J Cardiol 1988;18:405-16.
74. Wagenvoort CA, Wagenvoort N. Smooth muscle content of pulmonary arterial media in pulmonary venous hypertension compared with other forms of pulmonary hypertension. Chest 1982;81:581-5.
75. Endo M, Yamaki S, Ohmi M, Tabayashi K. Pulmonary vascular changes induced by congenital obstruction of pulmonary venous return. Ann Thorac Surg 2000;69:193-7.
76. Collins-Nakai RL, Rosenthal A, Castaneda AR, Bernhard WF, Nadas AS. Congenital mitral stenosis. A review of 20 years’ experience. Circulation 1977;56:1039-47.
77. Braun K, Izak G, Rosenberg SZ. Pulmonary arterial pressure after priscoline in mitral stenosis. Br Heart J 1957;19:217-21.
78. Davies LG, Goodwin JF, Van Leuven BD. The nature of pulmonary hypertension in mitral stenosis. Br Heart J 1954;16:440-6.
79. Mahoney PD, Loh E, Blitz LR, Herrmann HC. Hemodynamic effects of inhaled nitric oxide in women with mitral stenosis and pulmonary hypertension. Am J Cardiol 2001;87:188-92.
80. Dalen JE, MatloffJM, Evans GL, Hoppin FG Jr, Bhardwaj P, Harken DE, et al. Early reduction of pulmonary vascular resistance after mitral-valve replacement. N Engl J Med 1967;277:387-94.
81. Krishnamoorthy KM, Dash PK, Radhakrishnan S, Shrivastava S. Response of different grades of pulmonary artery hypertension to balloon mitral valvuloplasty. Am J Cardiol 2002;90:1170-3.
82. Gotsman MS, van der Horst RL, Le Roux BT, Williams MA. Mitral valvotomy in childhood. Thorax 1973;28:453-7.
83. Kaul TK, Bain WH, Jones JV, Lorimer AR, Thomson RM, Turner MA, et al. Mitral valve replacement in the presence of severe pulmonary hypertension. Thorax 1976;31:332-6.
84. Umesan CV, Kapoor A, Sinha N, Kumar AS, Goel PK. Effect of Inoue balloon mitral valvotomy on severe pulmonary arterial hypertension in 315 patients with rheumatic mitral stenosis: immediate and long-term results. J Heart Valve Dis 2000;9:609-15.
85. Fawzy ME, Hassan W, Stefadouros M, Moursi M, El Shaer F, Chaudhary MA. Prevalence and fate of severe pulmonary hypertension in 559 consecutive patients with severe rheumatic mitral stenosis undergoing mitral balloon valvotomy. J Heart Valve Dis 2004;13:942-7.
86. Kulik TJ, Harris JE, McElhinney DB. The impact of pulmonary venous hypertension on the pulmonary circulation in the young. Congenit Heart Dis 2011;6:603-7.
87. Sime F, Penaloza D, Ruiz L. Bradycardia, increased cardiac output, and reversal of pulmonary hypertension in altitude natives living at sea level. Br Heart J 1971;33:647-57.
88. Banchero N, Cruz JC. Hemodynamic changes in the Andean native after two years at sea level. Aerospace Med 1970;41:849-53.
89. Grover RF, Vogel JH, Voigt GC, Blount SG, Jr. Reversal of high altitude pulmonary hypertension. Am J Cardiol 1966;18:928-32.
90. Penaloza D, Sime F, Ruiz F. High Altitude Physiology: Cardiac and Respiratory Aspects. In: Porter R, Knight J, editors. Ciba Foundation Symposium. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1971. p. 41-60.
91. Vogel JH, Weaver WF, Rose R, Blount SG Jr., Grover RF. Pulmonary hypertension on exertion in normal man living at 10,150 feet (Leadville, Colorado). Med Thorac 1962;19:461-77.
92. Banchero N, Sime F, Penaloza D, Cruz J, Gamboa R, Marticorena E. Pulmonary Pressure, Cardiac Output, and Arterial Oxygen Saturation during Exercise at High Altitude and at Sea Level. Circulation 1966;33:249-62.
93. Arias-Stella J, Saldana M. The Terminal Portion of the Pulmonary Arterial Tree in People Native to High Altitudes. Circulation 1963;28:915-25.
94. Heath D, Smith P, Rios Dalenz J, Williams D, Harris P. Small pulmonary arteries in some natives of La Paz, Bolivia. Thorax 1981;36:599-604.
95. Heath D, Williams D, Rios-Dalenz J, Calderon M, Gosney J. Small pulmonary arterial vessels of Aymara Indians from the Bolivian Andes. Histopathology 1990;16:565-71.
96. Wagenvoort CA, Wagenvoort N. Pathology of Pulmonary Hypertension. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 1977.
97. Hoffman JI, Rudolph AM. The natural history of ventricular septal defects in infancy. Am J Cardiol 1965;16:634-53.
98. Keith JD, Rose V, Collins G, Kidd BS. Ventricular septal defect. Incidence, morbidity, and mortality in various age groups. Br Heart J 1971;33:Suppl:81-7.
99. Collins G, Calder L, Rose V, Kidd L, Keith J. Ventricular septal defect: Clinical and hemodynamic changes in the first five years of life. Am Heart J 1972;84:695-705.
100. Weidman WH, Blount SG Jr., DuShane JW, Gersony WM, Hayes CJ, Nadas AS. Clinical course in ventricular septal defect. Circulation 1977;56(1 Suppl):I56-69.
101. Swan H, Zapata-Diaz J, Burchell H, Wood E. Pulmonary hypertension in congenital heart disease. Am J Med 1954;16:12-22.
102. Arcilla RA, Agustsson MH, BicoffJP, Lynfield J, Weinberg M Jr, Fell EH, et al. Futher observations on the natural history of isolated ventricular septal defects in infancy and childhood. serial cardiac atheterization studies in 75 patients. Circulation 1963;28:560-71.
103. DuShane JW, Krongrad E, Ritter DG, McGoon DC. The Fate of Raised Pulmonary Vascular Resistance After Surgery in Ventricular Septal Defect. In: Kidd BS, Rowe RD, editors. The Child With Congenital Heart Disease After Surgery. Mount Kisco, NY: Futura Publishing Company, Inc.; 1976. p. 299-312.
104. Castaneda AR, Zamora R, NicoloffDM, Moller JH, Hunt CE, Lucas RV. High-pressure, high-resistance ventricular septal defect. Surgical results of closure through right atrium. Ann Thorac Surg 1971;12:29-38.
105. Hallidie-Smith KA, Hollman A, Cleland WP, Bentall HH, Goodwin JF. Effects of surgical closure of ventricular septal defects upon pulmonary vascular disease. Br Heart J 1969;31:246-60.
106. Grosse-BrockhoffF, Loogen F. Ventricular septal defect. Circulation 1968;38(1 Suppl):13-20.
107. Lillehei CW, Levy M, Adams P, Anderson R. High-Pressure Ventricular Septal Defects. JAMA 1964;188:949-52.
108. Momma K, Takao A, Ando M, Nakazawa M, Takamizawa K. Natural and post-operative history of pulmonary vascular obstruction associated with ventricular septal defect. Jpn Circ J 1981;45:230-7.
109. Wagenvoort CA, Neufeld H, DuShane JW, Edwards J. The pulmonary arterial tree in ventricular septal defect. A quantitative study of anatomic features in fetuses, infants. and children. Circulation 1961;23:740-8.
110. Alt B, Shikes RH. Pulmonary hypertension in congenital heart disease: irreversible vascular changes in young infants. Pediatr Pathol 1983;1:423-34.
111. Hall SM, Haworth SG. Onset and evolution of pulmonary vascular disease in young children: Abnormal postnatal remodelling studied in lung biopsies. J Pathol 1992;166:183-93.
112. Lock JE, Einzig S, Bass JL, Moller JH. The pulmonary vascular response to oxygen and its influence on operative results in children with ventricular septal defect. Pediatr Cardiol 1982;3:41-6.
113. Auld PA, Gibbons J, McGregor M. Vasomotor tone in the pulmonary vascular bed in patients with left-to-right shunts. Br Heart J 1963;25:257-61.
114. Beekman RH, Rocchini AP, Rosenthal A. Hemodynamic effects of hydralazine in infants with a large ventricular septal defect. Circulation 1982;65:523-8.
115. Ferencz C. Transposition of the Great Vessels: Pathophysiologic Considerations Based upon a Study of the Lungs. Circulation 1966;33:232-41.
116. Viles PH, Ongley P, Titus JL. The spectrum of pulmonary vascular disease in transposition of the great arteries. Circulation 1969;40:31-41.
117. Newfeld EA, Paul MM, Muster AJ, Idriss FS. Pulmonary vascular disease in complete transposition of the great arteries: A study of 200 patients. Am J Cardiol 1974;34:75-82.
118. Penaloza D, Arias-Stella J. The heart and pulmonary circulation at high altitudes: Healthy highlanders and chronic mountain sickness. Circulation 2007;115:1132-46.
119. Grover RF, Wagner W, McMurty IF, Reeves JT. Pulmonary Circulation. In: Shepherd J, Abboud F, Geiger SR, editors. Handbook of Physiology, Section 2: The Cardiovascular System. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society; 1983. p. 118.
120. Staub NC. Site of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Chest 1985;88(4 Suppl):240S-5.
121. Rudolph AM, Neuhauser EB, Golinko R, Auld PA. Effects of pneumonectomy on pulmonary circulation in adult and young animals. Circ Res 1961;9:856-61.
122. Friedli B, Kent G, Kidd BS. The effect of increased pulmonary blood flow on the pulmonary vascular bed in pigs. Pediatr Res 1975;9:547-53.
123. Hawe A, Tsakiris AG, Rastelli GC, Titus JL, McGoon DC. Experimental studies of the pathogenesis of pulmonary vascular obstructive disease. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1972;63:652-64.
124. Kato H, Kidd L, Olley PM. Effects of hypoxia on pulmonary vascular reactivity in pneumonectomized puppies and minipigs. Circ Res 1971;28:397-402.
125. Massion W, Schilling J. Physiological Effects of Lung Resection in Adult and Puppy Dogs. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1964;48:239-50.
126. Davies P, McBride J, Murray GF, Wilcox BR, Shallal JA, Reid L. Structural changes in the canine lung and pulmonary arteries after pneumonectomy. J Appl Physiol 1982;53:859-64.
127. Johnson RL Jr, Cassidy SS, Grover R, Ramanathan M, Estrera A, Reynolds RC, et al. Effect of pneumonectomy on the remaining lung in dogs. J Appl Physiol 1991;70:849-58.
128. Haworth SG, de Leval M, Macartney FJ. Hypoperfusion and hyperperfusion in the immature lung. Pulmonary arterial development following ligation of the left pulmonary artery in the newborn pig. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1981;82:281-92.
129. Vogel JH, McNamara DG, Hallman G, Rosenberg H, Jamieson G, McCrady JD. Effects of mild chronic hypoxia on the pulmonary circulation in calves with reactive pulmonary hypertension. Circ Res 1967;21:661-9.
130. Rhodes J. Comparative physiology of hypoxic pulmonary hypertension: Historical clues from brisket disease. J Appl Physiol 2005;98:1092-100.
131. Esterly JA, Glagov S, Ferguson DJ. Morphogenesis of intimal obliterative hyperplasia of small arteries in experimental pulmonary hypertension. An ultrastructural study of the role of smooth-muscle cells. Am J Pathol 1968;52:325-47.
132. Rendas A, Lennox S, Reid L. Aorta-pulmonary shunts in growing pigs. Functional and structural assessment of the changes in the pulmonary circulation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1979;77:109-18.
133. Reddy VM, Meyrick B, Wong J, Khoor A, Liddicoat JR, Hanley FL, et al. In utero placement of aortopulmonary shunts. A model of postnatal pulmonary hypertension with increased pulmonary blood flow in lambs. Circulation 1995;92:606-13.
134. Rondelet B, Kerbaul F, Motte S, van Beneden R, Remmelink M, Brimioulle S, et al. Bosentan for the prevention of overcirculation-induced experimental pulmonary arterial hypertension. Circulation 2003;107:1329-35.
135. Muller W Jr., Dammann J Jr., Head W Jr. Changes in the pulmonary vessels produced by experimental pulmonary hypertension. Surgery 1953;34:363-75.
136. Ferguson D, Varco RL. The relation of blood pressure and flow to the development and regression of experimentally induced pulmonary arteriosclerosis. Circ Res 1955;3:152-8.
137. Dammann JJ, Baker J, Muller W Jr. Pulmonary vascular changes induced by experimentally produced pulmonary arterial hypertension. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1957;105:16-20.
138. Friedman PJ. Direct magnification angiography and correlative pathophysiology in experimental pulmonary hypertension. Investig Radiol 1972;7:474-95.
139. Van Benthuysen KM, Hammon JW Jr., Mitchener JS, Anderson RW. Electron microscopic alterations in experimental pulmonary hypertension. J Surg Res 1977;22:398-418.
140. Fasules JW, Tryka F, Chipman CW, Van Devanter SH. Pulmonary hypertension and arterial changes in calves with a systemic-to-left pulmonary artery connection. J Appl Physiol 1994;77:867-75.
141. Bousamra M 2nd, Rossi R, Jacobs E, Parviz M, Busch C, Nelin LD, et al. Systemic lobar shunting induces advanced pulmonary vasculopathy. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2000;120:88-98.
142. Dajnowiec D, Langille BL. Arterial adaptations to chronic changes in haemodynamic function: Coupling vasomotor tone to structural remodelling. Clin Sci 2007;113:15-23.
143. Martinez-Lemus LA, Hill MA, Meininger GA. The plastic nature of the vascular wall: A continuum of remodeling events contributing to control of arteriolar diameter and structure. Physiology 2009;24:45-57.
144. Humphrey JD. Mechanisms of arterial remodeling in hypertension: coupled roles of wall shear and intramural stress. Hypertension 2008;52:195-200.
145. Haworth SG, Sauer U, Buhlmeyer K, Reid L. Development of the pulmonary circulation in ventricular septal defect: A quantitative structural study. Am J Cardiol 1977;40:781-8.
146. Botney MD. Role of hemodynamics in pulmonary vascular remodeling: implications for primary pulmonary hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:361-4.
147. Beghetti M. Current Understanding and Unanswered Questions. In: Beghetti M, Barst RJ, Naeije R, Rubin LJ, editors. Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Related to Congenital Heart Disease. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2006. p. 6.
148. van Albada ME, Schoemaker RG, Kemna MS, Cromme-Dijkhuis AH, van Veghel R, Berger RM. The role of increased pulmonary blood flow in pulmonary arterial hypertension. Eur Respir J 2005;26:487-93.
149. Okada K, Tanaka Y, Bernstein M, Zhang W, Patterson GA, Botney MD. Pulmonary hemodynamics modify the rat pulmonary artery response to injury. A neointimal model of pulmonary hypertension. Am J Pathol 1997;151:1019-25.
150. Stenmark KR, Meyrick B, Galie N, Mooi WJ, McMurtry IF. Animal models of pulmonary arterial hypertension: The hope for etiological discovery and pharmacological cure. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2009;297:L1013-32.
151. Pool P, Vogel JH, Blount SG, Jr. Congenital unilateral absence of a pulmonary artery. The importance of flow in pulmonary hypertension. Am J Cardiol 1962;10:706-32.
152. Haworth SG. Development of the normal and hypertensive pulmonary vasculature. Exp Physiol 1995;80:843-53.
153. Hall SM, Gorenflo M, Reader J, Lawson D, Haworth SG. Neonatal pulmonary hypertension prevents reorganisation of the pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cytoskeleton after birth. J Anat 2000;196:391-403.
154. Williams B. Mechanical influences on vascular smooth muscle cell function. J Hypertens 1998;16:1921-9.
155. Smith JD, Davies N, Willis AI, Sumpio BE, Zilla P. Cyclic stretch induces the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in vascular smooth muscle cells. Endothelium 2001;8:41-8.
156. Siltanen P. Atrial septal defect of secundum type in adults. Clinical and haemodynamic studies of 129 cases before and after surgical correction under cardiopulmonary bypass. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1968; 497:1-151.
157. Tworetzky W, Moore P, Bekker JM, Bristow J, Black SM, Fineman JR. Pulmonary blood flow alters nitric oxide production in patients undergoing device closure of atrial septal defects. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;35:463-7.
158. Burchell H, Burroughts J, Kirklin J, Wiedman W, Wood E. The hemodynamic results of surgical correction of atrial septal defects: A report of thirty-three cases. Circulation 1956;13:825-33.
159. Nielsen JS, Fabricius J. The effect of exercise on the size of the shunt in patients with atrial septal defects. Acta Med Scand 1968;183:91-5.
160. Weidman WH, Swan H, DuShane JW, Wood E. A hemodynamic study of atrial septal defect and associated anomalies involving the atrial septum. J Lab Clin Med 1957;50:165-85.
161. Kannan BR, Sivasankaran S, Tharakan JA, Titus T, Ajith Kumar VK, Francis B, et al. Long-term outcome of patients operated for large ventricular septal defects with increased pulmonary vascular resistance. Indian Heart J 2003;55:161-6.
162. Wallgren CG, Boccanelli A, Zetterqvist P, Bjork VO. Late results after surgical closure of ventricular septal defect in children. Scand J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1980;14:145-51.
163. Cohn LH, Morrow A, Braunwald E. Operative treatment of atrial septal defect: Clinical and haemodynamic assessments in 175 patients. Br Heart J 1967;29:725-34.
164. Charmichael D, Forrester R, Inmon T, Mattingly T, Pollock B, Walker W. Electrocardiographic and hemodynamic correlation in atrial septal defect. Am Heart J 1956;52:547-61.
165. Beck W, Swan H, Burchell H, Kirklin J. Pulmonary vascular resistance after repair of atrial septal defects in patients with pulmonary hypertension. Circulation 1960;22:938-46.
166. Braunwald NS, Braunwald E, Morrow A. The effects of surgical abolition of left-to-right shunts on the pulmonary vascular dynamics of patients with pulmonary hypertension. Circulation 1962;26:1270-8.
167. Liddle H, Meyer B, Jones J. The results of surgical correction of atrial septal defect complicated by pulmonary hypertension. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1960;39:35-46.
168. Saksena FB, Aldridge HE. Atrial septal defect in the older patient. A clinical and hemodynamic study in patients operated on after age 35. Circulation 1970;42:1009-20.
169. Evans J, Rowe RD, Keith JD. The clinical diagnosis of atrial sefect defect in children. Am J Med 1961;30:345-56.
170. Zaver AG, Nadas AS. Atrial septal defect--secundum type. Circulation 1965;32(6 Suppl):324-332.