Recommendations for the radiological diagnosis and follow-up of neuropathological abnormalities associated with tuberous sclerosis complex

Journal of Neuro-Oncology

Volumn 118, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 205-223

  Rovira, Àlex ^a   Ruiz Falcó, María Luz ^b   García Esparza, Elena ^b   López Laso, Eduardo ^c   Macaya, Alfons ^a   Málaga, Ignacio ^d   Vázquez, Élida ^a   Vicente, Josefina ^c  

^a HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARI VALL D HEBRON   (Spain)

^b HOSPITAL INFANTIL UNIVERSITARIO NIÑO JESÚS   (Spain)

^c HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARIO REINA SOFÍA   (Spain)

^d HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARIO CENTRAL DE ASTURIAS   (Spain)

Author keywords

Magnetic resonance imaging; Mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors; Subependymal giant cell astrocytomas; Subependymal nodules; Tuberous sclerosis complex

Indexed keywords

EVEROLIMUS; MAMMALIAN TARGET OF RAPAMYCIN INHIBITOR;

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; CANCER SURGERY; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CORTICAL TUBER; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG APPROVAL; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; EPILEPSY; FETUS ECHOGRAPHY; FOLLOW UP; GROWTH RATE; HUMAN; HYDROCEPHALUS; INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT; MENTAL DISEASE; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEUROSURGERY; NEWBORN PERIOD; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY; PRENATAL PERIOD; RADIODIAGNOSIS; REVIEW; SUBEPENDYMAL GIANT CELL ASTROCYTOMA; SUBEPENDYMAL NODULE; SUPRATENTORIAL TUBER; TUBEROUS SCLEROSIS; WHITE MATTER; WHITE MATTER RADIAL MIGRATION LINE; ASTROCYTOMA; BRAIN; BRAIN DISEASES; BRAIN NEOPLASMS; COMPLICATION; CONSENSUS DEVELOPMENT; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; NEUROIMAGING; PATHOLOGY; PROCEDURES; RADIOGRAPHY;

ASTROCYTOMA; BRAIN; BRAIN DISEASES; BRAIN NEOPLASMS; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; HUMANS; NEUROIMAGING; TUBEROUS SCLEROSIS; ULTRASONOGRAPHY, PRENATAL;

EID: 84903901000     PISSN: 0167594X     EISSN: 15737373     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11060-014-1429-y     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Curatolo P, Bombardieri R, Jozwiak S (2008) Tuberous sclerosis. Lancet 372:657-668. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61279-9
2. Grajkowska W, Kotulska K, Jurkiewicz E, Matyja E (2010) Brain lesions in tuberous sclerosis complex. Folia Neuropathol 48:139-149
3. Roach ES, Sparagana SP (2004) Diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis complex. J Child Neurol 19:643-649
4. Sparagana SP, Roach ES (2000) Tuberous sclerosis complex. Curr Opin Neurol 13:115-119
5. Staley BA, Vail EA, Thiele EA (2011) Tuberous sclerosis complex: diagnostic challenges, presenting symptoms, and commonly missed signs. Pediatrics 127:e117-e125. doi: 10.1542/peds.2010-0192
6. Rakowski SK, Winterkorn EB, Paul E, Steele DJ, Halpern EF, Thiele EA (2006) Renal manifestations of tuberous sclerosis complex: incidence, prognosis, and predictive factors. Kidney Int 70:1777-1782. doi: 10.1038/sj.ki.5001853
7. Au KS, Ward CH, Northrup H (2008) Tuberous sclerosis complex: disease modifiers and treatments. Curr Opin Pediatr 20:628-633. doi: 10.1097/MOP.0b013e328318c529
8. Chan JA, Zhang H, Roberts PS, Jozwiak S, Wieslawa G, Lewin-Kowalik J, Kotulska K, Kwiatkowski DJ (2004) Pathogenesis of tuberous sclerosis subependymal giant cell astrocytomas: biallelic inactivation of TSC1 or TSC2 leads to mTOR activation. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 63:1236-1242
9. Dabora SL, Jozwiak S, Franz DN, Roberts PS, Nieto A, Chung J, Choy YS, Reeve MP, Thiele E, Egelhoff JC, Kasprzyk-Obara J, Domanska-Pakiela D, Kwiatkowski DJ (2001) Mutational analysis in a cohort of 224 tuberous sclerosis patients indicates increased severity of TSC2, compared with TSC1, disease in multiple organs. Am J Hum Genet 68:64-80. doi: 10.1086/316951
10. Huang J, Manning BD (2008) The TSC1-TSC2 complex: a molecular switchboard controlling cell growth. Biochem J 412:179-190. doi: 10.1042/BJ20080281
11. Pascual-Castroviejo I, Pascual-Pascual SI, Velazquez R, van den Ouweland AM, Halley DJ (2006) Tuberous sclerosis complex type 1 (TSC1): diagnostic significance of the cutaneous mini-lesions in a familial presentation. Neurologia 21:386-388
12. DiMario FJ Jr (2004) Brain abnormalities in tuberous sclerosis complex. J Child Neurol 19:650-657
13. Crino PB, Nathanson KL, Henske EP (2006) The tuberous sclerosis complex. N Engl J Med 355:1345-1356. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra055323
14. Franz DN, Bissler JJ, McCormack FX (2010) Tuberous sclerosis complex: neurological, renal and pulmonary manifestations. Neuropediatrics 41:199-208. doi: 10.1055/s-0030-1269906
15. Artigas-Pallares J, Gabau-Vila E, Guitart-Feliubadalo M (2005) Syndromic autism: II. Genetic syndromes associated with autism. Rev Neurol 40:S151-S162
16. Goh S, Butler W, Thiele EA (2004) Subependymal giant cell tumors in tuberous sclerosis complex. Neurology 63:1457-1461
17. Pascual-Castroviejo I, Pascual-Pascual SI, Velazquez-Fragua R, Viano J, Carceller F, Hernandez-Moneo JL, Gutierrez-Molina M, Morales C (2010) Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma in tuberous sclerosis complex. A presentation of eight paediatric patients. Neurologia 25:314-321
18. de Vries PJ (2010) Targeted treatments for cognitive and neurodevelopmental disorders in tuberous sclerosis complex. Neurotherapeutics 7:275-282. doi: 10.1016/j.nurt.2010.05.001
19. Napolioni V, Curatolo P (2008) Genetics and molecular biology of tuberous sclerosis complex. Curr Genomics 9:475-487. doi: 10.2174/138920208786241243
20. Winterkorn EB, Pulsifer MB, Thiele EA (2007) Cognitive prognosis of patients with tuberous sclerosis complex. Neurology 68:62-64. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000250330.44291.54
21. Samir H, Ghaffar HA, Nasr M (2011) Seizures and intellectual outcome: clinico-radiological study of 30 Egyptian cases of tuberous sclerosis complex. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 15:131-137. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2010.07.010
22. Kim WS (2011) Mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors for treatment in tuberous sclerosis. Korean J Pediatr 54:241-245. doi: 10.3345/kjp.2011.54.6.241
23. Krueger DA, Franz DN (2008) Current management of tuberous sclerosis complex. Paediatr Drugs 10:299-313
24. Levine NB, Collins J, Franz DN, Crone KR (2006) Gradual formation of an operative corridor by balloon dilation for resection of subependymal giant cell astrocytomas in children with tuberous sclerosis: specialized minimal access technique of balloon dilation. Minim Invasive Neurosurg 49:317-320. doi: 10.1055/s-2006-950391
25. Jozwiak S, Nabbout R, Curatolo P (2013) Management of subependymal giant cell astrocytoma (SEGA) associated with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC): clinical recommendations. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2012.12.008
26. Franz DN, Belousova E, Sparagana S, Bebin EM, Frost M, Kuperman R, Witt O, Kohrman MH, Flamini JR, Wu JY, Curatolo P, de Vries PJ, Whittemore VH, Thiele EA, Ford JP, Shah G, Cauwel H, Lebwohl D, Sahmoud T, Jozwiak S (2013) Efficacy and safety of everolimus for subependymal giant cell astrocytomas associated with tuberous sclerosis complex (EXIST-1): a multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet 381:125-132. doi: 10.1016/S0140- 6736(12)61134-9
27. Krueger DA, Care MM, Holland K, Agricola K, Tudor C, Mangeshkar P, Wilson KA, Byars A, Sahmoud T, Franz DN (2010) Everolimus for subependymal giant-cell astrocytomas in tuberous sclerosis. N Engl J Med 363:1801-1811. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1001671
28. Berhouma M (2010) Management of subependymal giant cell tumors in tuberous sclerosis complex: the neurosurgeon's perspective. World J Pediatr 6:103-110. doi: 10.1007/s12519-010-0025-2
29. Jozwiak J, Jozwiak S, Wlodarski P (2008) Possible mechanisms of disease development in tuberous sclerosis. Lancet Oncol 9:73-79. doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(07)70411-4
30. Major P (2011) Potential of mTOR inhibitors for the treatment of subependymal giant cell astrocytomas in tuberous sclerosis complex. Aging (Albany NY) 3:189-191
31. Wong M (2010) Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibition as a potential antiepileptogenic therapy: from tuberous sclerosis to common acquired epilepsies. Epilepsia 51:27-36
32. Evans JC, Curtis J (2000) The radiological appearances of tuberous sclerosis. Br J Radiol 73:91-98
33. Baskin HJ Jr (2008) The pathogenesis and imaging of the tuberous sclerosis complex. Pediatr Radiol 38:936-952. doi: 10.1007/s00247-008-0832-y
34. Jurkiewicz E, Jozwiak S, Bekiesinska-Figatowska M, Pakula-Kosciesza I, Walecki J (2006) Cyst-like cortical tubers in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex: mR imaging with the FLAIR sequence. Pediatr Radiol 36:498-501. doi: 10.1007/s00247-006-0142-1
35. Rott HD, Lemcke B, Zenker M, Huk W, Horst J, Mayer K (2002) Cyst-like cerebral lesions in tuberous sclerosis. Am J Med Genet 111:435-439. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.10637
36. Kalantari BN, Salamon N (2008) Neuroimaging of tuberous sclerosis: spectrum of pathologic findings and frontiers in imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 190:W304-W309
37. Chu-Shore CJ, Frosch MP, Grant PE, Thiele EA (2009) Progressive multifocal cystlike cortical tubers in tuberous sclerosis complex: clinical and neuropathologic findings. Epilepsia 50:2648-2651. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009. 02193.x
38. van Eeghen AM, Teran LO, Johnson J, Pulsifer MB, Thiele EA, Caruso P (2013) The neuroanatomical phenotype of tuberous sclerosis complex: focus on radial migration lines. Neuroradiology 55:1007-1014. doi: 10.1007/s00234-013- 1184-3
39. de Ribaupierre S, Dorfmuller G, Bulteau C, Fohlen M, Pinard JM, Chiron C, Delalande O (2007) Subependymal giant-cell astrocytomas in pediatric tuberous sclerosis disease: when should we operate? Neurosurgery 60:83-89. doi: 10.1227/01.NEU.0000249216.19591.5D
40. Nabbout R, Santos M, Rolland Y, Delalande O, Dulac O, Chiron C (1999) Early diagnosis of subependymal giant cell astrocytoma in children with tuberous sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 66:370-375
41. Hussain N, Curran A, Pilling D, Malluci CL, Ladusans EJ, Alfirevic Z, Pizer B (2006) Congenital subependymal giant cell astrocytoma diagnosed on fetal MRI. Arch Dis Child 91:520. doi: 10.1136/adc.2005.081703
42. Sonigo P, Elmaleh A, Fermont L, Delezoide AL, Mirlesse V, Brunelle F (1996) Prenatal MRI diagnosis of fetal cerebral tuberous sclerosis. Pediatr Radiol 26:1-4
43. Torres OA, Roach ES, Delgado MR, Sparagana SP, Sheffield E, Swift D, Bruce D (1998) Early diagnosis of subependymal giant cell astrocytoma in patients with tuberous sclerosis. J Child Neurol 13:173-177
44. Vaughn J, Hagiwara M, Katz J, Roth J, Devinsky O, Weiner H, Milla S (2013) MRI characterization and longitudinal study of focal cerebellar lesions in a young tuberous sclerosis cohort. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 34:655-659. doi: 10.3174/ajnr.A3260
45. Arca G, Pacheco E, Alfonso I, Duchowny MS, Melnick SJ (2006) Characteristic brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings in neonates with tuberous sclerosis complex. J Child Neurol 21:280-285
46. Jurkiewicz E, Jozwiak S (2006) Giant intracranial aneurysm in a 9-year-old boy with tuberous sclerosis. Pediatr Radiol 36:463. doi: 10.1007/s00247-005-0092-z
47. Robain O, Floquet C, Heldt N, Rozenberg F (1988) Hemimegalencephaly: a clinicopathological study of four cases. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 14:125-135
48. Levine D, Barnes P, Korf B, Edelman R (2000) Tuberous sclerosis in the fetus: second-trimester diagnosis of subependymal tubers with ultrafast MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 175:1067-1069
49. Sgro M, Barozzino T, Toi A, Johnson J, Sermer M, Chitayat D (1999) Prenatal detection of cerebral lesions in a fetus with tuberous sclerosis. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 14:356-359. doi: 10.1046/j.1469-0705.1999.14050356.x
50. Saada J, Hadj Rabia S, Fermont L, Le Bidois J, Bernardes LS, Martinovic J, Sonigo P, Dumez Y, Bonnet D, Benachi A (2009) Prenatal diagnosis of cardiac rhabdomyomas: incidence of associated cerebral lesions of tuberous sclerosis complex. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 34:155-159. doi: 10.1002/uog.6367
51. Mühler MR, Rake A, Schwabe M, Schmidt S, Kivelitz D, Chaoui R, Hamm B (2007) Value of fetal cerebral MRI in sonographically proven cardiac rhabdomyoma. Pediatr Radiol 37:467-474. doi: 10.1007/s00247-007-0436-y
52. Baron Y, Barkovich AJ (1999) MR imaging of tuberous sclerosis in neonates and young infants. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 20:907-916
53. Goodman M, Lamm SH, Engel A, Shepherd CW, Houser OW, Gomez MR (1997) Cortical tuber count: a biomarker indicating neurologic severity of tuberous sclerosis complex. J Child Neurol 12:85-90
54. Doherty C, Goh S, Young Poussaint T, Erdag N, Thiele EA (2005) Prognostic significance of tuber count and location in tuberous sclerosis complex. J Child Neurol 20:837-841
55. O'Callaghan FJ, Harris T, Joinson C, Bolton P, Noakes M, Presdee D, Renowden S, Shiell A, Martyn CN, Osborne JP (2004) The relation of infantile spasms, tubers, and intelligence in tuberous sclerosis complex. Arch Dis Child 89:530-533
56. Pascual-Castroviejo I, Hernandez-Moneo JL, Pascual-Pascual SI, Viano J, Gutierrez-Molina M, Velazquez-Fragua R, Quinones Tapia D, Morales Bastos C (2012) Significance of tuber size for complications of tuberous sclerosis complex. Neurologia. doi: 10.1016/j.nrl.2012.11.002
57. Gallagher A, Grant EP, Madan N, Jarrett DY, Lyczkowski DA, Thiele EA (2010) MRI findings reveal three different types of tubers in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex. J Neurol 257:1373-1381. doi: 10.1007/s00415-010- 5535-2
58. Jansen FE, Vincken KL, Algra A, Anbeek P, Braams O, Nellist M, Zonnenberg BA, Jennekens-Schinkel A, van den Ouweland A, Halley D, van Huffelen AC, van Nieuwenhuizen O (2008) Cognitive impairment in tuberous sclerosis complex is a multifactorial condition. Neurology 70:916-923. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000280579. 04974.c0
59. Ma TS, Elliott RE, Ruppe V, Devinsky O, Kuzniecky R, Weiner HL, Carlson C (2012) Electrocorticographic evidence of perituberal cortex epileptogenicity in tuberous sclerosis complex. J Neurosurg Pediatr 10:376-382. doi: 10.3171/2012.8.PEDS1285
60. Major P, Rakowski S, Simon MV, Cheng ML, Eskandar E, Baron J, Leeman BA, Frosch MP, Thiele EA (2009) Are cortical tubers epileptogenic? Evidence from electrocorticography. Epilepsia 50:147-154. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01814. x
61. Chou IJ, Lin KL, Wong AM, Wang HS, Chou ML, Hung PC, Hsieh MY, Chang MY (2008) Neuroimaging correlation with neurological severity in tuberous sclerosis complex. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 12:108-112. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2007.07.002
62. Numis AL, Major P, Montenegro MA, Muzykewicz DA, Pulsifer MB, Thiele EA (2011) Identification of risk factors for autism spectrum disorders in tuberous sclerosis complex. Neurology 76:981-987. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182104347
63. Ertan G, Arulrajah S, Tekes A, Jordan L, Huisman TA (2010) Cerebellar abnormality in children and young adults with tuberous sclerosis complex: MR and diffusion weighted imaging findings. J Neuroradiol 37:231-238. doi: 10.1016/j.neurad.2009.12.006
64. Eluvathingal TJ, Behen ME, Chugani HT, Janisse J, Bernardi B, Chakraborty P, Juhasz C, Muzik O, Chugani DC (2006) Cerebellar lesions in tuberous sclerosis complex: neurobehavioral and neuroimaging correlates. J Child Neurol 21:846-851
65. Peters JM, Sahin M, Vogel-Farley VK, Jeste SS, Nelson CA III, Gregas MC, Prabhu SP, Scherrer B, Warfield SK (2012) Loss of white matter microstructural integrity is associated with adverse neurological outcome in tuberous sclerosis complex. Acad Radiol 19:17-25. doi: 10.1016/j.acra.2011.08.016
66. Chu-Shore CJ, Major P, Montenegro M, Thiele E (2009) Cyst-like tubers are associated with TSC2 and epilepsy in tuberous sclerosis complex. Neurology 72:1165-1169. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000345365.92821.86
67. Marcotte L, Aronica E, Baybis M, Crino PB (2012) Cytoarchitectural alterations are widespread in cerebral cortex in tuberous sclerosis complex. Acta Neuropathol 123:685-693. doi: 10.1007/s00401-012-0950-3
68. Bader RS, Chitayat D, Kelly E, Ryan G, Smallhorn JF, Toi A, Hornberger LK (2003) Fetal rhabdomyoma: prenatal diagnosis, clinical outcome, and incidence of associated tuberous sclerosis complex. J Pediatr 143:620-624. doi: 10.1067/S0022-3476(03)00494-3
69. Chao AS, Chao A, Wang TH, Chang YC, Chang YL, Hsieh CC, Lien R, Su WJ (2008) Outcome of antenatally diagnosed cardiac rhabdomyoma: case series and a meta-analysis. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 31:289-295. doi: 10.1002/uog.5264
70. Wortmann SB, Reimer A, Creemers JW, Mullaart RA (2008) Prenatal diagnosis of cerebral lesions in Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC). Case report and review of the literature. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 12:123-126. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2007. 06.006
71. Rumack C, Wilson S, Charboneau J, Levine D (2011) Diagnostic ultrasound. In: Stamm ER, Drose JA (eds) The fetal heart, 4th edn. Mosby, Philadelphia
72. Chen CP, Liu YP, Huang JK, Chang TY, Chen MR, Chiu NC, Wang W (2005) Contribution of ultrafast magnetic resonance imaging in prenatal diagnosis of sonographically undetected cerebral tuberous sclerosis associated with cardiac rhabdomyomas. Prenat Diagn 25:523-524. doi: 10.1002/pd.1182
73. Barkovich AJ, Raybaud C (2012) Pediatric neuroimaging, 5th edn. Lippincott, Philadelphia
74. Inoue Y, Nemoto Y, Murata R, Tashiro T, Shakudo M, Kohno K, Matsuoka O, Mochizuki K (1998) CT and MR imaging of cerebral tuberous sclerosis. Brain Dev 20:209-221
75. Griffiths PD, Martland TR (1997) Tuberous Sclerosis Complex: the role of neuroradiology. Neuropediatrics 28:244-252. doi: 10.1055/s-2007-973708
76. Menor F, Marti-Bonmati L, Mulas F, Poyatos C, Cortina H (1992) Neuroimaging in tuberous sclerosis: a clinicoradiological evaluation in pediatric patients. Pediatr Radiol 22:485-489
77. McGregor A, Caron E, Perkins F, Wheless J, Choudhri A (2012) Comparison of MRI sequences to CT in identification of calcified subependymal nodules in tuberous sclerosis patients. Neurology 78:1
78. Griffiths PD, Hoggard N (2009) Distribution and conspicuity of intracranial abnormalities on MR imaging in adults with tuberous sclerosis complex: a comparison of sequences including ultrafast T2-weighted images. Epilepsia 50:2605-2610. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009.02107.x
79. Luat AF, Makki M, Chugani HT (2007) Neuroimaging in tuberous sclerosis complex. Curr Opin Neurol 20:142-150. doi: 10.1097/WCO.0b013e3280895d93
80. Pinto Gama HP, da Rocha AJ, Braga FT, da Silva CJ, Maia AC Jr, de Campos Meirelles RG, Mendonca do Rego JI, Lederman HM (2006) Comparative analysis of MR sequences to detect structural brain lesions in tuberous sclerosis. Pediatr Radiol 36:119-125. doi: 10.1007/s00247-005-0033-x
81. Thomsen HS, Morcos SK, Almen T, Bellin MF, Bertolotto M, Bongartz G, Clement O, Leander P, Heinz-Peer G, Reimer P, Stacul F, van der Molen A, Webb JA (2013) Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis and gadolinium-based contrast media: updated ESUR Contrast Medium Safety Committee guidelines. Eur Radiol 23:307-318. doi: 10.1007/s00330-012-2597-9
82. DiMario FJ Jr, Cobb RJ, Ramsby GR, Leicher C (1993) Familial band heterotopias simulating tuberous sclerosis. Neurology 43:1424-1426
83. Garel C (2004) MRI of the fetal brain. Normal development and cerebral pathologies. Springer, Berlin
84. Martín Fernández-Mayoralas D, Recio-Rodríguez M, Fernández-Jaen A, Jiménez de la Peña M, Marrero Brito J, Muñoz Jareño N (2012) Resonancia magnética fetal en la esclerosis tuberosa. Acta Pediatr Esp 70:e39-e43
85. Adriaensen ME, Schaefer-Prokop CM, Stijnen T, Duyndam DA, Zonnenberg BA, Prokop M (2009) Prevalence of subependymal giant cell tumors in patients with tuberous sclerosis and a review of the literature. Eur J Neurol 16:691-696. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2009.02567.x
86. Shepherd CW, Scheithauer BW, Gomez MR, Altermatt HJ, Katzmann JA (1991) Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma: a clinical, pathological, and flow cytometric study. Neurosurgery 28:864-868
87. Raju GP, Urion DK, Sahin M (2007) Neonatal subependymal giant cell astrocytoma: new case and review of literature. Pediatr Neurol 36:128-131. doi: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2006.08.009
88. Braffman BH, Bilaniuk LT, Naidich TP, Altman NR, Post MJ, Quencer RM, Zimmerman RA, Brody BA (1992) MR imaging of tuberous sclerosis: pathogenesis of this phakomatosis, use of gadopentetate dimeglumine, and literature review. Radiology 183:227-238
89. O'Callaghan FJ, Martyn CN, Renowden S, Noakes M, Presdee D, Osborne JP (2008) Subependymal nodules, giant cell astrocytomas and the tuberous sclerosis complex: a population-based study. Arch Dis Child 93:751-754. doi: 10.1136/adc.2007.125880
90. Michelozzi C, Di Leo G, Galli F, Silva Barbosa F, Labriola F, Sardanelli F, Cornalba G (2013) Subependymal nodules and giant cell tumours in tuberous sclerosis complex patients: prevalence on MRI in relation to gene mutation. Childs Nerv Syst 29:249-254. doi: 10.1007/s00381-012-1892-8
91. Genitori L (2006) Neurocutaneous syndromes in children, neurosurgical strategies in the management of subependymal giant cell tumors in tuberous sclerosis complex. John Libbey Eurotext, Philadelphia
92. Laverda A, Zampieri S (2006) Subependimal giant cell astrocytomas and tuberous sclerosis. In: Curatolo P, Riva D (eds) Neurocutanous syndromes in children. John Libbey Eurotext, Philadelphia
93. Campen CJ, Porter BE (2011) Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma (SEGA) treatment update. Curr Treat Options Neurol 13:380-385. doi: 10.1007/s11940-011-0123-z
94. Shepherd CW, Gomez MR (1991) Mortality in the mayo clinic tuberous sclerosis complex Study. Ann N Y Acad Sci 615:375-377
95. Webb DW, Fryer AE, Osborne JP (1996) Morbidity associated with tuberous sclerosis: a population study. Dev Med Child Neurol 38:146-155
96. Clarke MJ, Foy AB, Wetjen N, Raffel C (2006) Imaging characteristics and growth of subependymal giant cell astrocytomas. Neurosurg Focus 20:E5
97. Koeller KK, Sandberg GD (2002) From the archives of the AFIP. Cerebral intraventricular neoplasms: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics 22:1473-1505
98. Beaumont TL, Limbrick DD, Smyth MD (2012) Advances in the management of subependymal giant cell astrocytoma. Childs Nerv Syst 28:963-968. doi: 10.1007/s00381-012-1785-x
99. Cuccia V, Zuccaro G, Sosa F, Monges J, Lubienieky F, Taratuto AL (2003) Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma in children with tuberous sclerosis. Childs Nerv Syst 19:232-243. doi: 10.1007/s00381-002-0700-2
100. Franz DN, Leonard J, Tudor C, Chuck G, Care M, Sethuraman G, Dinopoulos A, Thomas G, Crone KR (2006) Rapamycin causes regression of astrocytomas in tuberous sclerosis complex. Ann Neurol 59:490-498. doi: 10.1002/ana.20784
101. Mandonnet E, Pallud J, Clatz O, Taillandier L, Konukoglu E, Duffau H, Capelle L (2008) Computational modeling of the WHO grade II glioma dynamics: principles and applications to management paradigm. Neurosurg Rev 31:263-269. doi: 10.1007/s10143-008-0128-6