Contrasting effects of ocean acidification on tropical fleshy and calcareous algae

PeerJ

Volumn 2014, Issue 1, 2014, Pages

  Johnson, Maggie Dorothy ^a   Price, Nichole N ^a   Smith, Jennifer E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Calcareous algae; Calcification; Crustose coralline algae; Halimeda; Macroalgae; Ocean acidification; Photosynthesis

Indexed keywords

ACIDIFICATION; ALGAL GROWTH; ANIMAL TISSUE; ARTICLE; BIOMINERALIZATION; CALCAREOUS ALGA; CALCIFICATION; CARBON FOOTPRINT; CAULERPA; CONTROLLED STUDY; CORAL REEF; ELECTRON TRANSPORT; EPIPHYTE; LIGHT INTENSITY; LITHOPHYLLUM; MACROALGA; NONHUMAN; OPUNTIA; PHOTOSYNTHETICALLY ACTIVE RADIATION; WATER ANALYSIS; WATER SAMPLING;

EID: 84903852940     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21678359     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.7717/peerj.411     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. 2. New Phytologist 165:351-371 DOI 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01224.x.
2. Albright R. 2011. Reviewing the effects of ocean acidification on sexual reproduction and early life history stages of reef-building corals. Journal of Marine Biology 2011:1-14 DOI 10.1155/2011/473615.
3. Andersson AJ, Gledhill D. 2013. Ocean acidification and coral reefs: effects on breakdown, dissolution, and net ecosystem calcification. Annual Review of Marine Science 5:321-348 DOI 10.1146/annurev-marine-121211-172241.
4. Andersson AJ, Mackenzie FT, Bates NR. 2008. Life on the margin: implications of ocean acidification on Mg-calcite, high latitude and cold-water marine calcifiers. Marine Ecology Progress Series 373:265-273 DOI 10.3354/meps07639.
5. Anthony KRN, Diaz-Pulido G, Verlinden N, Tilbrook B, Andersson AJ. 2013. Benthic buffers and boosters of ocean acidification. Biogeosciences Discussions 10:1831-1865 DOI 10.5194/bgd-10-1831-2013.
6. Anthony KRN, Kleypas JA, Gattuso JP. 2011. Coral reefs modify their seawater carbon chemistry-implications for impacts of ocean acidification. Global Change Biology 17:3655-3666 DOI 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02510.x.
7. Anthony KRN, Kline DI, Diaz-Pulido G, Dove S, Hoegh-Guldberg O. 2008. Ocean acidification causes bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105:17442-17446 DOI 10.1073/pnas.0804478105.
8. Borowitzka MA, Larkum AWD. 1976. Calcification in the green-alga Halimeda. III. Sources of inorganic carbon for photosynthesis and calcification and a model of mechanism of calcification. Journal of Experimental Botany 27:879-893 DOI 10.1093/jxb/27.5.879.
9. Brawley SH, Johnson LE. 1992. Gametogenesis, gametes and zygotes: an ecological perspective on sexual reproduction in the algae. British Phycological Journal 27:233-252 DOI 10.1080/00071619200650241.
10. Camoin GF, Montaggioni LF. 1994. High-energy coralgal-stromatolite frameworks from Holocene reefs (Tahiti, French Polynesia). Sedimentology 41:655-676 DOI 10.1111/j.1365-3091.1994.tb01416.x.
11. Chisholm JRM. 2003. Primary productivity of reef-building crustose coralline algae. Limnology and Oceanography 48:1376-1387 DOI 10.4319/lo.2003.48.4.1376.
12. Clifton KE, Clifton LM. 1999. The phenology of sexual reproduction by green algae (Bryopsidales) on Caribbean coral reefs. Journal of Phycology 35:24-34 DOI 10.1046/j.1529-8817.1999.3510024.x.
13. Comeau S, Carpenter RC, Edmunds PJ. 2012. Coral reef calcifiers buffer their response to ocean acidification using both bicarbonate and carbonate. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 280:20122374 DOI 10.1098/rspb.2012.2374.
14. 2 do not exhibit a tipping point. Limnology and Oceanography 58:388-398 DOI 10.4319/lo.2013.58.1.0388.
15. Cooper H, Hedges LV, Valentine JC. 1994. The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
16. Cornwall CE, Hepburn CD, Pritchard D, Currie KI, McGraw CM, Hunter KA, Hurd CL. 2012. Carbon-use strategies in macroalgae: differential responses to lowered pH and implications for ocean acidification. Journal of Phycology 48:137-144 DOI 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2011.01085.x.
17. Davies PS. 1989. Short-term growth measurements of corals using an accurate buoyant weighing technique. Marine Biology 101:389-395 DOI 10.1007/BF00428135.
18. 2 enhances the competitive strength of seaweeds over corals. Ecology Letters 14:156-162 DOI 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01565.x.
19. Diaz-Pulido G, Anthony KRN, Kline DI, Dove S, Hoegh-Guldberg O. 2012. Interactions between ocean acidification and warming on the mortality and dissolution of coralline algae. Journal of Phycology 48:32-39 DOI 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2011.01084.x.
20. 2 measurements. British Columbia: North Pacific Marine Science Organization.
21. Doney SC, Balch WM, Fabry VJ, Feely RA. 2009. Ocean Acidification: a critical emerging problem for the ocean sciences. Oceanography 22:16-25 DOI 10.5670/oceanog.2009.93.
22. Eberlein T, Van deWaal DB, Rost B. 2014. Differential effects of ocean acidification on carbon acquisition in two bloom-forming dinoflagellate species. Physiologia Plantarum In Press DOI 10.1111/ppl.12137.
23. Edwards MS, Kim KY. 2010. Diurnal variation in relative photosynthetic performance in giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera (Phaeophyceae, Laminariales) at different depths as estimated using PAM fluorometry. Aquatic Botany 92:119-128 DOI 10.1016/j.aquabot.2009.10.017.
24. Enriquez S, Borowitzka MA. 2010. The use of the fluorescence signal in studies of seagrasses and macroalgae. In: Chlorophyll a fluorescence in aquatic sciences: methods and applications. Netherlands: Springer, 187-208.
25. Fabricius KE. 2005. Effects of terrestrial runoffon the ecology of corals and coral reefs: review and synthesis. Marine Pollution Bulletin 50:125-146 DOI 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.11.028.
26. Fabricius KE, Langdon C, Uthicke S, Humphrey C, Noonan S, De'ath G, Okazaki R, Muehllehner N, Glas MS, Lough JM. 2011. Losers and winners in coral reefs acclimatized to elevated carbon dioxide concentrations. Nature Climate Change 1:165-169 DOI 10.1038/nclimate1122.
27. 2 on the CaCO3 system in the oceans. Science 305:362-366 DOI 10.1126/science.1097329.
28. Frenette JJ, Demers S, Legendre L, Dodson J. 1993. Lack of agreement among models for estimating the photosynthetic parameters. Limnology and Oceanography 38:679-687 DOI 10.4319/lo.1993.38.3.0679.
29. 2 concentrations. Journal of Applied Phycology 3:355-362 DOI 10.1007/BF02392889.
30. Gao KS, Zheng YQ. 2010. Combined effects of ocean acidification and solar UV radiation on photosynthesis, growth, pigmentation and calcification of the coralline alga Corallina sessilis (Rhodophyta). Global Change Biology 16:2388-2398 DOI 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02113.x.
31. Gattuso J-P, Hansson L. 2011. Ocean acidification: background and history. In: Gattuso JP, Hansson L, eds. Ocean acidification. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
32. 2 fluxes: effect of photosynthetic and calcifying marine organisms and ecosystems. Marine Ecology Progress Series 129:307-312 DOI 10.3354/meps129307.
33. 2 concentrating mechanisms in algae: mechanisms, envrionmental modulation, and evolution. Annual Review of Plant Biology 56:99-131 DOI 10.1146/annurev.arplant.56.032604.144052.
34. Hall-Spencer JM, Rodolfo-Metalpa R, Martin S, Ransome E, Fine M, Turner SM, Rowley SJ, Tedesco D, Buia MC. 2008. Volcanic carbon dioxide vents show ecosystem effects of ocean acidification. Nature 454:96-99 DOI 10.1038/nature07051.
35. Hamilton S, Smith JE, Price NN, Sandin SA. 2014. Quantifying patterns of fish herbivory on Palmyra Atoll (USA), an uninhabited predator-dominated central Pacific coral reef. Marine Ecology Progress Series 501:141-155 DOI 10.3354/meps10684.
36. Harley CDG, Anderson KM, Demes KW, Jorve JP, Kordas RL, Coyle TA, Graham MH. 2012. Effects of climate change on global seaweed communities. Journal of Phycology 48:1064-1078 DOI 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2012.01224.x.
37. Haas AF, Nelson CE, Rohwer F, Wegley-Kelly L, Quistad SD, Carlson CA, Leichter JJ, Hatay M, Smith JE. 2013. Influence of coral and algal exudates on microbially mediated reef metabolism. Peer J 1:e108 DOI 10.7717/peerj.108.
38. Harrington L, Fabricius K, De'Ath G, Negri A. 2004. Recognition and selection of settlement substrata determine post-settlement survival in corals. Ecology 85:3428-3437 DOI 10.1890/04-0298.
39. Hendriks IE, Duarte CM, Alvarez M. 2010. Vulnerability of marine biodiversity to ocean acidification: a meta-analysis. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 86:157-164 DOI 10.1016/j.ecss.2009.11.022.
40. Hoegh-Guldberg O, Mumby PJ, Hooten AJ, Steneck RS, Greenfield P, Gomez E, Harvell CD, Sale PF, Edwards AJ, Caldeira K, Knowlton N, Eakin CM, Iglesias-Prieto R, Muthiga N, Bradbury RH, Dubi A, Hatziolos ME. 2007. Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science 318:1737-1742 DOI 10.1126/science.1152509.
41. Hofmann GE, Smith JE, Johnson KS, Send U, Levin LA, Fiorenza MF, Paytan A, Price NN, Peterson B, Takeshita Y, Matson PG, Crook ED, Kroeker KJ, Gambi MC, Rivest EB, Frieder CA, Yu PC, Martz TR. 2011. High-frequency dynamics of ocean pH: a multi-ecosystem comparison. PLoS ONE 6:e28983 DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0028983.
42. 2 levels affect the activity of nitrate reductase and carbonic anhydrase in the calcifying rhodophyte Corallina officinalis. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:899-908 DOI 10.1093/jxb/ers369.
43. Hughes TP. 1994. Catastrophes, phase-shifts, and large-scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef. Science 265:1547-1551 DOI 10.1126/science.265.5178.1547.
44. Hughes TP, Graham NAJ, Jackson JBC, Mumby PJ, Steneck RS. 2010. Rising to the challenge of sustaining coral reef resilience. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 25:633-642 DOI 10.1016/j.tree.2010.07.011.
45. Hurd CL, Cornwall CE, Currie K, Hepburn CD, McGraw CM, Hunter KA, Boyd PW. 2011. Metabolically induced pH fluctuations by some coastal calcifiers exceed projected 22nd century ocean acidification: a mechanism for differential susceptibility? Global Change Biology 17:3254-3262 DOI 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02473.x.
46. Hurd CL, Hepburn CD, Currie KI, Raven JA, Hunter KA. 2009. Testing the effects of ocean acidification on algal metabolism: considerations for experimental designs. Journal of Phycology 45:1236-1251 DOI 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2009.00768.x.
47. Johnson MD, Carpenter RC. 2012. Ocean acidification and warming decrease calcification in the crustose coralline alga Hydrolithon onkodes and increase susceptibility to grazing. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 434:94-101 DOI 10.1016/j.jembe.2012.08.005.
48. 2. PLoS ONE 9:e87678 DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0087678.
49. Jokiel PL, Rodgers KS, Kuffner IB, Andersson AJ, Cox EF, Mackenzie FT. 2008. Ocean acidification and calcifying reef organisms: a mesocosm investigation. Coral Reefs 27:473-483 DOI 10.1007/s00338-008-0380-9.
50. Kamenos NA, Burdett HL, Aloisio E, Findlay HS, Martin S, Longbone C, Dunn J, Widdicombe S, Calosi P. 2013. Coralline algal structure is more sensitive to rate, rather than the magnitude, of ocean acidification. Global Change Biology 19:3621-3628 DOI 10.1111/gcb.12351.
51. Kleypas JA, Buddemeier RW, Archer D, Gattuso JP, Langdon C, Opdyke BN. 1999. Geochemical consequences of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide on coral reefs. Science 284:118-120 DOI 10.1126/science.284.5411.118.
52. Knowlton N. 2001. The future of coral reefs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98:5419-5425 DOI 10.1073/pnas.091092998.
53. Koch M, Bowes G, Ross C, Zhang X-H. 2013. Climate change and ocean acidification effects on seagrasses and marine macroalgae. Global Change Biology 19:103-132 DOI 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02791.x.
54. Kroeker KJ, Kordas RL, Crim R, Hendriks IE, Ramajo L, Singh GS, Duarte CM, Gattuso J-P. 2013. Impacts of ocean acidification on marine organisms: quantifying sensitivities and interaction with warming. Global Change Biology 19:1884-1896 DOI 10.1111/gcb.12179.
55. Kroeker KJ, Kordas RL, Crim RN, Singh GG. 2010. Meta-analysis reveals negative yet variable effects of ocean acidification on marine organisms. Ecology Letters 13:1419-1434 DOI 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01518.x.
56. 2 and O2 on the seaweed Lomentaria articulata. Plant Cell and Environment 22:1303-1310 DOI 10.1046/j.1365-3040.1999.00492.x.
57. Kuffner IB, Andersson AJ, Jokiel PL, Rodgers KS, Mackenzie FT. 2008. Decreased abundance of crustose coralline algae due to ocean acidification. Nature Geoscience 1:114-117 DOI 10.1038/ngeo100.
58. 2 on photosynthesis and calcification of corals and interactions with seasonal change in temperature/irradiance and nutrient enrichment. Journal of Geophysical Research 110:1-16 DOI 10.1029/2004JC002576.
59. 2 in gas and seawater at equilibrium. Marine Chemistry 70:105-119 DOI 10.1016/S0304-4203(00)00022-0.
60. 2 driven seawater acidification increases photochemical stress in a green alga. Phycologia 51:562-566 DOI 10.2216/11-65.1.
61. Mantyka CS, Bellwood DR. 2007. Macroalgal grazing selectivity among herbivorous coral reef fishes. Marine Ecology Progress Series 352:177-185 DOI 10.3354/meps07055.
62. 2 and temperature. Ecology and Evolution 3:676-693 DOI 10.1002/ece3.475.
63. Martin S, Gattuso JP. 2009. Response of Mediterranean coralline algae to ocean acidification and elevated temperature. Global Change Biology 15:2089-2100 DOI 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.01874.x.
64. McCook LJ, Jompa J, Diaz-Pulido G. 2001. Competition between corals and algae on coral reefs:a review of evidence and mechanisms. Coral Reefs 19:400-417 DOI 10.1007/s003380000129.
65. Meinshausen M, Smith SJ, Calvin K, Daniel JS, Kainuma MLT, Lamarque JF, Matsumoto K, Montzka SA, Raper SCB, Riahi K, Thomson A, Velders GJM, van Vuuren DPP. 2011. The RCP greenhouse gas concentrations and their extensions from 1765 to 2300. Climatic Change 109:213-241 DOI 10.1007/s10584-011-0156-z.
66. Milliman JD, Gastner M, Muller J. 1971. Utilization of magnesium in coralline algae. Geological Society of America Bulletin 82:573-580 DOI 10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[573:UOMICA]2.0.CO;2.
67. Milliman JD, Troy PJ, Balch WM, Adams AK, Li YC, Mackenzie FT. 1999. Biologically mediated dissolution of calcium carbonate above the chemical lysocline? Deep Sea Research Part I:Oceanographic Research Papers 46:1653-1669 DOI 10.1016/S0967-0637(99)00034-5.
68. Moberg F, Folke C. 1999. Ecological goods and services of coral reef ecosystems. Ecological Economics 29:215-233 DOI 10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00009-9.
69. 2 and "ocean acidification": role of high Mg-calcites. Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta 70:5814-5830 DOI 10.1016/j.gca.2006.08.017.
70. Nash MC, Opdyke BN, Troitzsch U, Russell BD, Adey WH, Kato A, Diaz-Pulido G, Brent C, Gardner M, Prichard J, Kline DI. 2012. Dolomite-rich coralline algae in reefs resist dissolution in acidified conditions. Nature Climate Change 3:268-272 DOI 10.1038/nclimate1760.
71. Nelson CE, Goldberg SJ, Kelly LW, Haas AF, Smith JE, Rohwer F, Carlson CA. 2013. Coral and macroalgal exudates vary in neutral sugar composition and differentially enrich reef bacterioplankton lineages. The ISME Journal 7:962-979 DOI 10.1038/ismej.2012.161.
72. Nugues MM, Smith GW, Hooidonk RJ, Seabra MI, Bak RPM. 2004. Algal contact as a trigger for coral disease. Ecology Letters 7:919-923 DOI 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00651.x.
73. Ohde S, vanWoesik R. 1999. Carbon dioxide flux and metabolic processes of a coral reef, Okinawa. Bulletin of Marine Science 65:559-576.
74. Orr JC, Fabry VJ, Aumont O, Bopp L, Doney SC, Feely RA, Gnanadesikan A, Gruber N, Ishida A, Joos F, Key RM, Lindsay K, Maier-Reimer E, Matear R, Monfray P, Mouchet A, Najjar RG, Plattner GK, Rodgers KB, Sabine CL, Sarmiento JL, Schlitzer R, Slater RD, Totterdell IJ, Weirig MF, Yamanaka Y, Yool A. 2005. Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms. Nature 437:681-686 DOI 10.1038/nature04095.
75. 2 enrichment:possible impacts of climate change and potential for remediation of coastal habitats. Marine Ecology Progress Series 344:1-13 DOI 10.3354/meps07084.
76. 2 system calculations. ORNL/CDIAC-105a. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
77. Platt T, Gallegos CL, Harrison WG. 1980. Photoinhibition of photosynthesis in natural assemblages of marine phytoplankton. Journal of Marine Research 38:687-701.
78. Porzio L, Buia MC, Hall-Spencer JM. 2011. Effects of ocean acidification on macroalgal communities. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 400:278-287 DOI 10.1016/j.jembe.2011.02.011.
79. Price NN. 2010. Habitat selection, facilitation, and biotic settlement cues affect distribution and performance of coral recruits in French Polynesia. Oecologia 163:747-758 DOI 10.1007/s00442-010-1578-4.
80. Price NN, Hamilton SL, Tootell JS, Smith JE. 2011. Species-specific consequences of ocean acidification for the calcareous tropical green algae Halimeda. Marine Ecology Progress Series 440:67-78 DOI 10.3354/meps09309.
81. Ragazzola F, Foster LC, Form A, Anderson PSL, Hansteen TH, Fietzke J. 2012. Ocean acidification weakens the structural integrity of coralline algae. Global Change Biology 18:2804-2812 DOI 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02756.x.
82. Rasher DB, Engel S, Bonito V, Fraser GJ, Montoya JP, Hay ME. 2012. Effects of herbivory, nutrients, and reef protection on algal proliferation and coral growth on a tropical reef. Oecologia 169:187-198 DOI 10.1007/s00442-011-2174-y.
83. Raven JA. 1970. Exogenous inorganic carbon sources in plant photosynthesis. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 45:167-220 DOI 10.1111/j.1469-185X.1970.tb01629.x.
84. Raven JA, Giordano M, Beardall J, Maberly SC. 2011. Algal and aquatic plant carbon concentrating mechanisms in relation to environmental change. Photosynthesis Research 109:281-296 DOI 10.1007/s11120-011-9632-6.
85. Rees SA, Opdyke BN, Wilson PA, Henstock TJ. 2007. Significance of Halimeda bioherms to the global carbonate budget based on a geological sediment budget for the Northern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Coral Reefs 26:177-188 DOI 10.1007/s00338-006-0166-x.
86. 2 concentrations. Phycologia 36:93-93.
87. 2-induced ocean acidification. Geology 37:1131-1134 DOI 10.1130/G30210A.1.
88. Sandin SA, Smith JE, DeMartini EE, Dinsdale EA, Donner SD, Friedlander AM, Konotchick T, Malay M, Maragos JE, Obura D, Pantos O, Paulay G, Richie M, Rohwer F, Schroeder RE, Walsh S, Jackson JBC, Knowlton N, Sala E. 2008. Baselines and degradation of coral reefs in the Northern Line Islands. PLoS ONE 3:e1548 DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0001548.
89. 2, temperature, irradiance, and time on the physiological performance of Chondrus crispus (Rhodophyta). Botanica Marina 56:63-74 DOI 10.1515/bot-2012-0143.
90. Saroussi S, Beer S. 2007. Alpha and quantum yield of aquatic plants derived from PAM fluorometry: uses and misuses. Aquatic Botany 86:89-92 DOI 10.1016/j.aquabot.2006.09.003.
91. 2 affect calcification and photosynthesis in the tropical coralline alga, Hydrolithon sp (Rhodophyta). Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 84:337-341 DOI 10.1016/j.ecss.2009.03.038.
92. Sinutok S, Hill R, Doblin MA, Kuhl M, Ralph PJ. 2012. Microenvironmental changes support evidence of photosynthesis and calcification inhibition in Halimeda under ocean acidification and warming. Coral Reefs 31:1201-1213 DOI 10.1007/s00338-012-0952-6.
93. Sinutok S, Hill R, Doblin MA, Wuhrer R, Ralph PJ. 2011. Warmer more acidic conditions cause decreased productivity and calcification in subtropical coral reef sediment-dwelling calcifiers. Limnology and Oceanography 56:1200-1212 DOI 10.4319/lo.2011.56.4.1200.
94. Smith JE, Hunter CL, Smith CM. 2002. Distribution and reproductive characteristics of nonindigenous and invasive marine algae in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sciences 56:299-315 DOI 10.1353/psc.2002.0030.
95. Smith JE, Shaw M, Edwards RA, Obura D, Pantos O, Sala E, Sandin SA, Smriga S, Hatay M, Rohwer FL. 2006. Indirect effects of algae on coral: algae-mediated, microbe-induced coral mortality. Ecology Letters 9:835-845 DOI 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00937.x.
96. Smith JE, Smith CM, Vroom PS, Beach KL, Miller S. 2004. Nutrient and growth dynamics of Halimeda tuna on Conch Reef, Florida Keys: possible influence of internal tides on nutrient status and physiology. Limnology and Oceanography 49:1923-1936 DOI 10.4319/lo.2004.49.6.1923.
97. Smith JE, Price NN, Nelson CE, Haas AF. 2013. Coupled changes in dissolved oxygen and pH caused by metabolism of benthic coral reef organisms. Marine Biology 160:2347-2447.
98. Tribollet A, Payri C. 2001. Bioerosion of the coralline alga Hydrolithon onkodes by microborers in the coral reefs of Moorea, French Polynesia. Oceanologica Acta 24:329-342 DOI 10.1016/S0399-1784(01)01150-1.
99. Valiela I. 1984. Marine ecological processes. New York: Springer-Verlag.
100. Williams GJ, Smith JE, Conklin EJ, Gove JM, Sala E, Sandin SA. 2013. Benthic communities at two remote Pacific coral reefs: effects of reef habitat, depth, and wave energy gradients on spatial patterns. Peer J 1:e81 DOI 10.7717/peerj.81.
101. Williamson C. 2010. Salinity and temperature effects on release of sexual products and other organic matter by coral reef-associated green algae of the genus Caulerpa. D. Phil. Thesis, Ludwig-Maximilians University.
102. 2. Botanica Marina 56:161-168 DOI 10.1515/bot-2012-0216.