How to Measure Motivation: A Guide for the Experimental Social Psychologist

Social and Personality Psychology Compass

Volumn 8, Issue 7, 2014, Pages 328-341

  Touré Tillery, Maferima ^a   Fishbach, Ayelet ^b  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84903746225     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17519004     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12110     Document Type: Article

References (90)

1. Aarts, H., Custers, R., & Holland, R. W. (2007). The nonconscious cessation of goal pursuit: When goals and negative affect are coactivated. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 165-178.
2. Aarts, H., Custers, R., & Veltkamp, M. (2008). Goal priming and the affective-motivational route to nonconscious goal pursuit. Social Cognition, 26, 555-577.
3. Aarts, H., Dijksterhuis, A., & De Vries, P. (2001). On the psychology of drinking: Being thirsty and perceptually ready. British Journal of Psychology, 92, 631-642.
4. Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom - Students learning-strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 260-267.
5. Balcetis, E., & Dunning, D. (2006). See what you want to see: Motivational influences on visual perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 612-625.
6. Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.
7. Bandura, A., & Schunk, D. H. (1981). Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 586-598.
8. Bargh, J. A., & Barndollar, K. (1996). Automaticity in action: The unconscious as repository of chronic goals and motives. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior (pp. 457-481). New York: Guilford.
9. Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., Lee-Chai, A., Barndollar, K., & Trotschel, R. (2001). The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1014-1027.
10. Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252-1265.
11. Bodner, R., & Prelec, D. (1996). The emergence of private rules in a self-signalling model. International Journal of Psychology, 31, 3652-3653.
12. Brehm, J. W., & Self, E. A. (1989). The intensity of motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 109-131.
13. Brendl, C. M., & Higgins, E. T. (1996). Principles of judging valence: What makes events positive or negative? In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (pp. 95-160). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
14. Brendl, C. M., Markman, A. B., & Messner, C. (2003). The devaluation effect: Activating a need devalues unrelated objects. Journal of Consumer Research, 29, 463-473.
15. Brown, J. S. (1948). Gradients of approach and avoidance responses and their relation to level of motivation. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 41, 450-465.
16. Bruner, J. S., & Goodman, C. C. (1947). Value and need as organizing factors in perception. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 42, 33-44.
17. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the Self-regulation of Behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.
18. Choi, J., & Fishbach, A. (2011). Choice as an end versus a means. Journal of Marketing Research, 48, 544-554.
19. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). The general causality orientations scale - Self-determination in personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 19, 109-134.
20. Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256-273.
21. Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 229-238.
22. Ferguson, M. J., & Bargh, J. A. (2004). Liking is for doing: The effects of goal pursuit on automatic evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 557-572.
23. Festinger, L. A. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
24. Finkel, E. J., DeWall, C. N., Slotter, E. B., Oaten, M., & Foshee, V. A. (2009). Self-regulatory failure and intimate partner violence perpetration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 483-499.
25. Fishbach, A., & Choi, J. (2012). When thinking about goals undermines goal pursuit. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 118, 99-107.
26. Fishbach, A., & Ferguson, M. F. (2007). The goal construct in social psychology. In A. W. Kruglanski & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles (pp. 490-515). New York: Guilford.
27. Fishbach, A., & Shah, J. Y. (2006). Self-control in action: Implicit dispositions toward goals and away from temptations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 820-832.
28. Fishbach, A., & Trope, Y. (2005). The substitutability of external control and self-control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 256-270.
29. Fishbach, A., & Zhang, Y. (2008). Together or apart: When goals and temptations complement versus compete. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 547-559.
30. Fishbach, A., Dhar, R., & Zhang, Y. (2006). Subgoals as substitutes or complements: The role of goal accessibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 232-242.
31. Fishbach, A., Friedman, R. S., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2003). Leading us not unto temptation: Momentary allurements elicit overriding goal activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 296-309.
32. Fishbach, A., Shah, J. Y., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2004). Emotional transfer in goal systems. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 723-738.
33. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1974). Attitudes towards objects as predictors of single and multiple behavioral criteria. Psychological Review, 81, 59-74.
34. Fitts, P. M. (1954). The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47, 381-391.
35. Förster, J., Higgins, E. T., & Idson, L. C. (1998). Approach and avoidance strength during goal attainment: Regulatory focus and the "goal looms larger" effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1115-1131.
36. Förster, J., Liberman, N., & Higgins, E. T. (2005). Accessibility from active and fulfilled goals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 220-239.
37. Gailliot, M. T., Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Maner, J. K., Plant, E. A., Tice, D. M., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2007). Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 325-336.
38. Gao, L., Wheeler, S. C., & Shiv, B. (2009). The "shaken self": Product choices as a means of restoring self-view confidence. Journal of Consumer Research, 36, 29-38.
39. Gollwitzer, P. M. (1996). The volitional benefits of planning. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The Psychology of Action (pp. 287-312). New York: Guilford.
40. Goschke, T., & Kuhl, J. (1993). Representation of Intentions - Persisting activation in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology - Learning Memory and Cognition, 19, 1211-1226.
41. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
42. Heath, C., Larrick, R. P., & Wu, G. (1999). Goals as reference points. Cognitive Psychology, 38, 79-109.
43. Herek, G. M. (1987). Can functions be measured - A new perspective on the functional-approach to attitudes. Social Psychology Quarterly, 50, 285-303.
44. Higgins, E. T., & King, G. A. (1981). Accessibility of social constructs: Information-processing consequences of individual and contextual variability. In N. Cantor & J. F. Kihlstrom (Eds.), Personality, Cognition and Social Interaction (pp. 69-122). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
45. Higgins, E. T., Idson, L. C., Freitas, A. L., Spiegel, S., & Molden, D. C. (2003). Transfer of value from fit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1140-1153.
46. Hull, C. L. (1932). The goal gradient hypothesis and maze learning. Psychological Review, 39, 25-43.
47. Inzlicht, M., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2012). What is ego depletion? Toward a mechanistic revision of the resource model of self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 450-463.
48. Kivetz, R., Urminsky, O., & Zheng, Y. (2006). The goal-gradient hypothesis resurrected: Purchase acceleration, illusionary goal progress, and customer retention. Journal of Marketing Research, 43, 39-58.
49. Koo, M., & Fishbach, A. (2010). Climbing the goal ladder: How upcoming actions increase level of aspiration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 1-13.
50. Kruglanski, A. W. (1996). Goals as knowledge structures. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior (pp. 599-618). New York: Guilford Press
51. Kruglanski, A. W., Shah, J. Y., Fishbach, A., Friedman, R., Chun, W. Y., & Sleeth-Keppler, D. (2002). A theory of goal systems. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 331-378.
52. Kruglanski, A. W., Thompson, E. P., Higgins, E. T., Atash, M. N., Pierro, A., Shah, J. Y., & Spiegel, S. (2000). To "do the right thing" or to "just do it": Locomotion and assessment as distinct self-regulatory imperatives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 793-815.
53. Lewin, K. (1935). A Dynamic Theory of Personality: Selected Papers. New York: McGraw Hill.
54. Liberman, N., & Förster, J. (2000). Expression after suppression: A motivational explanation of postsuppressional rebound. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 190-203.
55. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). Work motivation and satisfaction - Light at the end of the tunnel. Psychological Science, 1, 240-246.
56. Magill, R. A. (2011). Motor Learning and Control: Concepts and Applications. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
57. Markman, A. B., & Brendl, C. M. (2000). The influence of goals on value and choice. In D. L. Medin (Ed.), Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory (Vol. 39, pp. 97-128). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
58. Markman, A. B., & Brendl, C. M. (2005). Constraining theories of embodied cognition. Psychological Science, 16, 6-10.
59. Marsh, R. L., Hicks, J. L., & Bink, M. L. (1998). Activation of completed, uncompleted, and partially completed intentions. Journal of Experimental Psychology - Learning Memory and Cognition, 24, 350-361.
60. Merton, R. K. (1957). Social Theory and Social Structure. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
61. Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. (1960). Plans and the Structure of Behavior. New York, NY: Henry Holt.
62. Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244, 933-938.
63. Molden, D. C., Hui, C. M., Scholer, A. A., Meier, B. P., Noreen, E. E., D'Agostino, P. R., & Martin, V. (2012). Motivational versus metabolic effects of carbohydrates on self-control. Psychological Science, 23, 1137-1144.
64. Nunes, J. C., & Dreze, X. (2006). The endowed progress effect: How artificial advancement increases effort. Journal of Consumer Research, 32, 504-512.
65. Ormrod, J. E. (1999). Human learning (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
66. Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex. London: Oxford University Press.
67. Powers, W. T. (1973). Behavior: The Control of Perception. Oxford, England: Aldine.
68. Prelec, D., & Bodner, R. (2003). Self-signaling and self-control. In G. Loewenstein, D. Read & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Time and Decision (pp. 277-298). New York: Russell Sage Press.
69. Read, D., Loewenstein, G., & Kalyanaraman, S. (1999). Mixing virtue and vice: Combining the immediacy effect and the diversification heuristic. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 12, 257-273.
70. Reed, M. B., & Aspinwall, L. G. (1998). Self-affirmation reduces biased processing of health-risk information. Motivation and Emotion, 22, 99-132.
71. Rumelhart, D. E., & Norman, D. A. (1982). Simulating a skilled typist - A study of skilled cognitive-motor performance. Cognitive Science, 6, 1-36.
72. Ryan, R. M. (1982). Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere - An extension of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 450-461.
73. Ryan, R. M., Koestner, R., & Deci, E. L. (1991). Ego-involved persistence - When free-choice behavior is not intrinsically motivated. Motivation and Emotion, 15, 185-205.
74. Sansone, C., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). I don't feel like it: The function of interest in self-regulation. In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior (pp. 7-26). New York: Guilford Press.
75. Schlenker, B. R. (1985). Identity and self-identification. In B. R. Schlenker (Ed.), The Self and Social Life (pp. 65-99). New York: Mc-Graw-Hill.
76. Shah, J. Y., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2000). The structure and substance of intrinsic motivation. In C. Sansone & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance (pp. 106-127). San Francisco: Academic Press.
77. Shah, J. Y., Friedman, R., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2002). Forgetting all else: On the antecedents and consequences of goal shielding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1261-1280.
78. Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261-302). New York: Academic Press.
79. Stefanucci, J. K., Proffitt, D. R., Clore, G., & Parekh, N. (2008). Skating down a steeper slope: Fear influences the perception of geographical slant. Perception, 37, 321-323.
80. Teachman, B. A., Stefanucci, J. K., Clerkin, E. M., Cody, M. W., & Proffitt, D. R. (2008). A new mode of fear expression: Perceptual bias in height fear. Emotion, 8, 296-301.
81. Tesser, A., & Martin, L. L. (1996). The psychology of evaluation. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles (pp. 400-432). New York: Guilford Press.
82. Touré-Tillery, M., & Fishbach, A. (2011). The course of motivation. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21, 414-423.
83. Touré-Tillery, M., & Fishbach, A. (2012). The end justifies the means, but only in the middle. Journal of Experimental Psychology - General, 141, 570-583.
84. Trope, Y., & Fishbach, A. (2000). Counteractive self-control in overcoming temptation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 493-506.
85. Vohs, K. D., Baumeister, R. F., & Ciarocco, N. J. (2005). Self-regulation and self-presentation: Regulatory resource depletion impairs impression management and effortful self-presentation depletes regulatory resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 632-657.
86. Vohs, K. D., Schmeichel, B. J., Nelson, N. M., Baumeister, R. F., Twenge, J. M., & Tice, D. M. (2008). Making choices impairs subsequent self-control: A limited-resource account of decision making, self-regulation, and active initiative. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 883-898.
87. Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 5-13.
88. Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. K. (1986). Human cognition in its social-context. Psychological Review, 93, 322-359.
89. Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 1-27.
90. Zeigarnik, B. (1927). Studies concerning action and affect psychology, III. The Retaining of completed and uncompleted Actions. Psychologische Forschung, 9, 1-85.