Goals as Reference Points

Cognitive Psychology

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 79-109

  Heath, Chip ^a   Larrick, Richard P ^b   Wu, George ^b  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; COGNITION; HUMAN; MOTIVATION;

COGNITION; GOALS; HUMANS; MOTIVATION;

EID: 0033070633     PISSN: 00100285     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/cogp.1998.0708     Document Type: Article

References (75)

1. Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychological Review, 64, 359-372.
2. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall International.
3. Benartzi, S., & Thaler, R. H. (1995). Myopic loss-aversion and the equity premium puzzle. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 110, 75-92.
4. Boles, T. L., & Messick, D. M. (1995). A reverse outcome bias: The influence of multiple reference points on the evaluation of outcomes and decisions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 61, 262-275.
5. Campbell, D. J., & Ilgen, D. R. (1976). Additive effects of task difficulty and goal setting on subsequent task performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 319-324.
6. Campion, M. A., & Lord, R. G. (1982). A control systems conceptualization of the goal-setting and changing process. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 30, 265-287.
7. Cantor, N., & Zirkel, S. (1990). Personality, cognition, and purposive behavior. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality (pp. 135-164). New York: Guilford Press.
8. Cantor, N., & Kihlstrom, J. F. (1987). Personality and social intelligence. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall International.
9. Collins, R. L. (1996). For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 51-69.
10. Earley, P. C., & Lituchy, T. R. (1991). Delineating goal and efficacy effect: A test of three models. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 81-98.
11. Erez, M., & Zidon, I. (1984). Effect of goal acceptance on the relationship of goal difficulty to performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 387-392.
12. Fajans, S. (1933). Erfolg, Ausdauer, und Aktivität beim Säugling und Kleinkind. Psychologische Forschung, 17, 268-305.
13. Feather, N. T. (1959). Subjective probability and decision under uncertainty. Psychological Review, 66, 150-164.
14. Feather, N. T. (1982). Introduction and overview. In N. T. Feather (Ed.), Expectations and actions: Expectancy-value models in psychology (pp. 1-16). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
15. Fishburn, P. C., & Kochenberger, G. A. (1979). Two-piece Von Neumann-Morgenstern utility functions. Decision Sciences, 10, 503-518.
16. Fischhoff, B., Goitein, B., & Shapira, Z. (1981). The experienced utility of expected utility approaches. In N. Feather (Ed.), Expectancy, incentive, and action (pp. 315-339). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
17. Frost, P. J., & Mahoney, T. A. (1976). Goal setting and task process: An interactive influence on individual performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 17, 328-350.
18. Galanter, E., & Pliner, P. (1974). Cross-modality matching of money against other continua. In H. R. Moskowitz et al. (Eds.), Sensation and measurement (pp. 65-76). Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel.
19. Garland, H. (1984). Relation of effort-performance expectancy to performance in goal-setting experiments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 79-84.
20. Garland, H. (1985). A cognitive mediation theory of task goals and human performance. Moti-vation and Emotion, 9, 345-367.
21. Gonzalez, R., & Wu, G. (1999). On the shape of the probability weighting function. Cognitive Psychology, 38, 129-166.
22. Hull, C. L. (1931). Goal attraction and directing ideas conceived as habit phenomena. Psychological Review, 38, 487-506.
23. Hull, C. L. (1932). The goal gradient hypothesis and maze learning. Psychological Review, 39, 25-43.
24. Hull, C. L. (1938). The goal-gradient hypothesis applied to some 'force-field' problems in the behavior of young children. Psychological Review, 45, 271-299.
25. Hull, C. L. (1952). A behavior system: An introduction to behavior theory concerning the individual organism. New Haven: Yale University.
26. Kahneman, D., Knetsch, J. L., & Thaler, R. (1990). Experimental tests of the endowment effect and the Coase Theorem. Journal of Political Economy, 98, 1325-48.
27. Kahneman, D., & Miller, D. T. (1986). Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives. Psychological Review, 93, 136-153.
28. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263-291.
29. Kernan, M. G., & Lord, R. G. (1989). The effects of explicit goals and specific feedback on escalation processes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19, 1125-1143.
30. Klein, H. J. (1991). Further evidence on the relationship between goal setting and expectancy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 49, 230-257.
31. Kramer, R. M. (1989). Windows of vulnerability or cognitive illusions? Cognitive processes and the nuclear arms race. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 79-100.
32. Larrick, R. P. (1993). Motivational factors in decision theories - The role of self-protection. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 440-450.
33. Larrick, R. P., & Boles, T. L. (1995). Avoiding regret in decisions with feedback - A negotiation example. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 63, 87-97.
34. Larrick, R. P., Heath, C., & Wu, G. (1999a). Goal-induced risk taking in strategy selection: A reference point prediction. University of Chicago Graduate School of Business working paper.
35. Larrick, R. P., Heath, C., & Wu, G. (1999b). Multiple reference points: Choice, affect, and motivation. University of Chicago Graduate School of Business working paper.
36. Lewin, K. (1931). Environmental forces in child behavior and development. In C. Murchison (Ed.), A handbook of child psychology. Worcester, MA: Clark University.
37. Lewin, K. (1935). A dynamic theory of personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
38. Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York: Harper & Brothers.
39. Lewin, K., Dembo, T., Festinger, L., & Sears, P. S. (1944). Level of aspiration. In J. McV. Hunt (Ed.), Personality and the behavior disorders (Vol. 1, pp. 333-378). New York: Ronald.
40. Locke, E. A. (1968). Toward a theory of task performance and incentives. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 3, 157-189.
41. Locke, E. A., Frederick, E., Lee, C., & Bobko, P. (1984). Effects of self-efficacy, goals, and task strategies on task performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 241-251.
42. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall International.
43. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1991). Self-regulation through goal setting. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 212-247.
44. Loewenstein, G. F., Thompson, L., & Bazerman, M. H. (1989). Social utility and decision-making in interpersonal contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 426-441.
45. Mace, C. A. (1935). Incentives: Some experimental studies. Industrial Health Research Board (Great Britain) Report No. 72. (Cited in Locke & Latham, 1990.)
46. Markowitz, H. (1952). The utility of wealth. Journal of Political Economy, 60, 151-158.
47. Markus, H., & Ruvolo, A. (1989). Possible selves: Personalized representations of goals. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 211-242). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
48. McNeil, B. J., Pauker, S. G., & Tversky, A. (1988). On the framing of medical decisions. In D. E. Bell, H. Raiffa, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Decision making: Descriptive, normative, and prescriptive interactions (pp. 562-568). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
49. Mento, A. J., Locke, E. A., & Klein, H. J. (1992). The relation of goal levels to valence and instrumentality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 395-405.
50. Mento, A. J., Steel, R. P., & Karren, R. J. (1987). A meta-analytic study of the effects of goal setting on task performance: 1966-1984. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 39, 52-83.
51. Meyer, J. P., Schact-Cole, B., & Gellatly, I. R. (1988). An examination of the cognitive mechanisms by which assigned goals affect task performance and reactions to performance. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 390-408.
52. Miller, N. E. (1944). Experimental studies of conflict. In J. McV. Hunt (Ed.), Personality and the behavior disorders (pp. 431-465). New York: Ronald Press.
53. Mossholder, K. W. (1980). Effects of externally mediated goal setting on intrinsic motivation: A laboratory experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 202-210.
54. Odean, T. (1998). Are investors reluctant to realize their losses? Journal of Finance, 53, 1775-1798.
55. Payne, J. W., Laughhunn, D. J., & Crum, R. L. (1980). Translation of gambles and aspiration effects in risky choice behavior. Management Science, 26, 1039-1060.
56. Payne, J. W., Laughhunn, D. J., & Crum, R. L. (1981). Further tests of aspiration level effects in risky choice behavior. Management Science, 27, 953-958.
57. Pervin, L. A. (1989). Goal concepts in personality and social psychology: A historical perspective. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 1-17). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
58. Quattrone, G. A., & Tversky, A. (1988). Contrasting rational and psychological analyses of political choice. American Political Science Review, 82, 719-736.
59. Roese, N. J., & Olson, J. M. (Eds.). (1995). What might have been: The social psychology of counterfactual thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
60. Roese, N. J. (1997). Counterfactual thinking. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 133-148.
61. Siegel, S. (1957). Level of aspiration and decision making. Psychological Review, 64, 253-262.
62. Spence, K. W. (1956). Behavior theory and conditioning. New Haven: Yale University.
63. Spence, K. W., Bergmann, G., & Lippitt, R. (1950). A study of simple learning under irrelevant motivational-reward conditions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 539-551.
64. Taylor, S. E., & Lobel, M. (1989). Social comparison activity under threats: Downward evaluation and upward contacts. Psychological Review, 96, 569-575.
65. Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 20, pp. 181-227). New York: Academic Press.
66. Thaler, R. H. (1985). Mental accounting and consumer choice. Marketing Science, 4, 199-214.
67. Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive behavior in animals and men. New York: Century.
68. Tolman, E. C. (1959). Principles of purposive behavior. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of science (pp. 92-157). New York: McGraw-Hill.
69. Tubbs, M. (1986). Goal setting: A meta-analytic examination of the empirical evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 474-483.
70. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the rationality of choice. Science, 221, 453-458.
71. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1991). Loss aversion in riskless choice: A reference-dependent model. Quarterly Journal of Economics, November 1991, 1039-1061.
72. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1992). Advances in prospect theory: Cumulative representa-tions of uncertainty. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 5, 297-323.
73. Webster's New Universal Dictionary (1994). New York: Barnes & Noble Books.
74. Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 245-271.
75. Wu, G., Heath, C., & Larrick, R. P. (1999). A value function-based model of goal behavior. University of Chicago Graduate School of Business working paper.