Green Militarization: Anti-Poaching Efforts and the Spatial Contours of Kruger National Park

Annals of the Association of American Geographers

Volumn 104, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 816-832

  Lunstrum, Elizabeth ^a  

^a YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

conservation; militarization; sovereignty; violence; wildlife crime poaching

Indexed keywords

CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT; CRIME; HERITAGE CONSERVATION; MILITARY GOVERNMENT; PROTECTED AREA; SOVEREIGNTY; VIOLENCE;

KRUGER NATIONAL PARK; SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 84903470629     PISSN: 00045608     EISSN: 14678306     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00045608.2014.912545     Document Type: Article

References (77)

1. Appel, M. 2013. SA's silent guerilla war. The New Age 17 April. http://www.thenewage.co.za/mobi/Detail.aspx?NewsID=92378&CatID=1007 (last accessed 21 October 2013).
2. Bernazzoli, R., and C. Flint. 2009. Power, place, and militarism: Toward a comparative geographic analysis of militarization. Geography Compass 3 (1): 393-411.
3. Bernazzoli, R., and C. Flint. 2010. Embodying the garrison state? Everyday geographies of militarization in American society. Political Geography 29 (3): 156-66.
4. Bonner, R. 1993. At the hand of man: Peril and hope for Africa's wildlife. New York: Knopf.
5. Brockington, D., and R. Duffy, eds. 2011. Capitalism and conservation. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
6. Carruthers, J. 1995. The Kruger National Park: A social and political history. Pietermaritzburg, South Africa: University of Natal Press.
7. Clinton, H. 2012. Remarks at the Partnership Meeting on Wildlife Trafficking, 8 November 2012, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC.
8. Conservation Drones. 2013. Conservationdrones.org-Now everyone can drone!. http://conservationdrones.org/ (last accessed 29 October 2013).
9. Conway-Smith, E. 2013. South Africa sics drones on rhino poachers. Global Post. 11 January. http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/africa/south-africa/130110/rhino-poaching-rhinoceros-horns-vietnam (last accessed 29 October 2013).
10. Cowen, D., and E. Gilbert, eds. 2007. War, citizenship, territory. London and New York: Routledge.
11. Dalby, S. 2008. Warrior geopolitics: Gladiator, Black Hawk Down, and the Kingdom of Heaven. Political Geography 27 (4): 439-55.
12. Davis, J. 2005. Representing place: "Deserted isles" and the reproduction of Bikini Atoll. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 95 (3): 607-25.
13. Davis, S. 2011. The US military base network and contemporary colonialism: Power projection, resistance, and the quest for operational unilateralism. Political Geography 30 (4): 215-24.
14. Department of Defence. 2013. Moves against rhino poachers are starting to bear fruit. http://www.dod.mil.za/operations/poaching/rhino.htm (last accessed 29 October 2013).
15. Department of Environmental Affairs. 2010. National strategy for the safety and security of rhinoceros populations in South Africa. Pretoria: South African Department of Environmental Affairs.
16. Dittmer, J. 2005. Captain America's empire: Reflections on identity, popular culture, and post-9/11 geopolitics. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 95 (3): 626-43.
17. Dowler, L. 2012. Gender, militarization and sovereignty. Geography Compass 6 (8): 490-99.
18. Duffy, R. 2010. Nature crime: How we're getting conservation wrong. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
19. Ellis, S. 1994. Of elephants and men: Politics and nature conservation in South Africa. Journal of Southern African Studies 20 (1): 53-69.
20. Emslie, R., T. Milliken, and B. Talukdar. 2012. African and Asian rhinoceroses: Status, conservation and trade [IUCN/TRAFFIC report to the CITES Secretariat pursuant to Resolution Confference 9.14] (Rev. CoP15). Geneva, Switzerland: CITES Secretariat.
21. Enloe, C. 2004. The curious feminist: Searching for women in a new age of empire. Berkeley: University of California Press.
22. Ethirajan, A. 2013. Nepal's rhino hunters become the hunted. BBC. 8 April 2013. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-22030392 (last accessed 29 October 2013).
23. Farish, M. 2013. Militarization. In The Ashgate research companion to critical geopolitics, ed. K. Dodds, M. Kuus, and J. Sharp, 247-62. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
24. Ferreira, S., J. Botha, and M. Emmett. 2012. Anthropogenic influences on conservation values of white rhinoceros. PLoS ONE 7 (9): 1-14.
25. Gettleman, J. 2012. Elephants dying in epic frenzy as ivory fuels wars and profits. New York Times. 3 September 2012. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/04/world/africa/africas-elephants-are-being-slaughtered-in-poaching-frenzy.html (last accessed 29 October 2013).
26. Geyer, M. 1989. The militarization of Europe, 1914-1945. In The militarization of the Western world, ed. J.R. Gillis, 65-102. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
27. Gibson, C. 1999. Politicians and poachers: The political economy of wildlife policy in Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
28. Gregory, D. 2006. The black flag: Guantanamo Bay and the space of exception. Geografiska Annaler Series B: Human Geography 88B (4): 405-27.
29. Gregory, D. 2011. The everywhere war. Geographical Journal 177:238-50.
30. Hannah, M. 2006. Torture and the ticking bomb: The war on terrorism as a geographical imagination of power/knowledge. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 96 (3): 622-40.
31. Havlick, D. 2011. Disarming nature: Converting military lands to wildife refuges. Geographical Review 101 (2): 183-200.
32. Henk, D. 2006. Biodiversity and the military in Botswana. Armed Forces & Society 32 (2): 273-91.
33. Higate, P., and M. Henry. 2010. Militarising spaces: A geographical exploration of Cyprus. In Reconstructing conflict: Integrating war and post-war geographies, ed. S. Kirsch and C. Flint, 133-55. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
34. Hutton, J., W. Adams, and J. Murombedzi. 2005. Back to the barriers? Changing narratives in biodiversity conservation. Forum for Development Studies 32 (2): 341-70.
35. Kariuki, J. 2013. Drone enters the war against rhino poachers. Daily Nation. 23 January 2013. http://www.nation.co.ke/News/Drone-enters-the-war-against-poachers/-/1056/1672656/-/11rq9kl/-/index.html (last accessed 29 October 2013).
36. Katz, C. 2007. Banal terrorism: Spatial fetishism and everyday insecurity. In Violent geographies: Fear, terror, and political violence, ed. D. Gregory and A. Pred, 349-61. London and New York: Routledge.
37. Krupar, S. 2011. Alien still life: Distilling the toxic logics of the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge. Environment and Planning D 29 (2): 268-90.
38. Kuletz, V. 1998. The tainted desert: Environmental ruin in the American West. London and New York: Routledge.
39. Kuus, M. 2009. Cosmopolitan militarism? Spaces of NATO expansion. Environment and Planning A 41 (3): 545-62.
40. Lackenbauer, P., and M. Farish. 2007. The Cold War on Canadian soil: Militarizing a northern environment. Environmental History 12 (4): 920-50.
41. Lombard, L. 2012. Dying for ivory. New York Times. 20 September 2012. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/21/opinion/elephants-dying-for-ivory.html?_r=0 (last accessed 29 October 2013).
42. Loucks, C., M. Mascia, A. Maxwell, K. Huy, K. Duong, N. Chea, B. Long, N. Cox, and T. Seng. 2009. Wildlife decline in Cambodia, 1953-2005: Exploring the legacy of armed conflict. Conservation Letters 2 (2): 82-92.
43. Loyd, J. 2011. "Peace is our only shelter": Questioning domesticities of militarization and white privilege. Antipode 43 (3): 845-73.
44. Lunstrum, E. 2009. Terror, territory, and deterritorialization: Landscapes of terror and the unmaking of state power in the Mozambican "civil war." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 99 (5): 884-92.
45. Lunstrum, E. 2013. Articulated sovereignty: Extending Mozambican state power through the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park. Political Geography 36:1-11.
46. Mabunda, L. 2013. 289 Moçambicanos mortos e 300 detidos por caça furtiva em África [289 Mozambicans killed and 300 arrested for poaching in Africa]. O País. 19 February 2013. http://www.opais.co.mz/index.php/sociedade/45-sociedade/24255-289-mocambicanos-mortos-e-300-detidos-por-caca-furtiva-em-africa.html (last accessed 29 October 2013).
47. Machlis, G., T. Hanson, Z. Špirić, and J. McKendry, eds. 2011. Warfare ecology: A new synthesis for peace and security. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
48. Macleod, F., and E. Valoi. 2013. Rhino trafficking: Down the rabbit hole at the Kruger Park. Daily Maverick. 8 July 2013. http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2013-07-08-rhino-trafficking-down-the-rabbit-hole-at-the-kruger-park/#.UmVvePmsh8E (last accessed 29 October 2013).
49. Meskell, L. 2012. The nature of heritage: The new South Africa. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
50. Neumann, R. 2001. Disciplining peasants in Tanzania: From state violence to self-surveillance in wildlife conservation. In Violent environments, ed. N. Peluso and M. Watts, 305-27. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
51. Neumann, R. 2004. Moral and discursive geographies in the war for biodiversity in Africa. Political Geography 23 (7): 813-37.
52. Obama, B. 2013. Executive order: Combating wildlife trafficking. The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, Washington, DC.
53. Ojeda, D. 2012. Green pretexts: Ecotourism, neoliberal conservation and land grabbing in Tayrona National Natural Park, Colombia. Journal of Peasant Studies 39 (2): 357-75.
54. Papastergiadis, N. 2010. Wars of mobility. European Journal of Social Theory 13 (3): 343-61.
55. Peluso, N. 1993. Coercing conservation? The politics of state resource control. Global Environmental Change 3 (2): 199-217.
56. Peluso, N., and P. Vandergeest. 2011. Political ecologies of war and forests: Counterinsurgencies and the making of national natures. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 101 (3): 587-608.
57. Piombo, J. 2013. Civil-military relations in an emerging democracy-South Africa. In The Routledge handbook of civil-military relations, ed. T. Bruneau and F. Matei, 255-74. London and New York: Routledge.
58. Rakoma, A., and T. Mampa. 2013. In remembrance of those who died protecting our heritage. Pretoria: Republic of South Africa Defence Department. http://www.dod.mil.za/news/2013/04/heritage.htm (last accessed 30 October 2013).
59. Reuters. 2012. Cameroon protects itself against elephant poachers by sending the army to its national park. NY Daily News. 22 December 2012. http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/cameroon-arms-elephant-poachers-calling-army-article-1.1225884?localLinksEnabled=false#commentpostform (last accessed 29 October 2013).
60. Roth, R., and W. Dressler. 2012. Market-oriented conservation governance: The particularities of place. Geoforum 43 (3): 363-66.
61. SANParks. 2012a. Media release: SANParks and private sector take rhino poaching war to the skies. http://www.sanparks.org/about/news/default.php?id=55378 (last accessed 29 October 2013).
62. SANParks. 2012b. Media release: SANParks enlists retired army general to command anti-poaching. http://www.sanparks.org/about/news/default.php?id=55388 (last accessed 29 October 2013).
63. SANParks. 2012c. Media release: SANParks step up the fight against poaching in KNP. http://www.sanparks.org/about/news/default.php?id=55236 (last accessed 29 October 2013).
64. SANParks and Denel. 2012. Denel and SANParks sign landmark agreement to combat rhino poaching. http://www.sanparks.org/about/news/default.php?id=55361 (last accessed 29 October 2013).
65. SAPA. 2013. Rhino poaching worse over Easter. News24. 2 April 2013. http://www.news24.com/Green/News/Rhino-poaching-rise-over-Easter-20130402 (last accessed 29 October 2013).
66. Seager, J. 1993. Earth follies: Feminism, politics, and the environment. London: Earthscan.
67. Solnit, R. 1999. Savage dreams: A journey into the landscape wars of the American West. Berkeley: University of California Press.
68. Spence, M. 1999. Dispossessing the wilderness: Indian removal and the making of the national parks. New York: Oxford University Press.
69. Thomas, J. 2010. The exquisite corpses of nature and history: The case of the Korean DMZ. In Militarized landscapes: From Gettysburg to Salisbury Plain, ed. C. Pearson, P. Coates, and T. Cole, 151-68. London: Continuum.
70. Thompson, A. 2013. Open letter to the minister of defence. http://www.news24.com/MyNews24/Open-letter-to-the-minister-of-defence-20130628 (last accessed 29 October 2013).
71. Warchol, G., and D. Kapla. 2012. Policing the wilderness: A descriptive study of wildlife conservation officers in South Africa. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 36 (2): 83-101.
72. Westing, A. 1975. Environmental consequences of the Second Indochina War: A case study. Ambio 4 (5-6): 216-22.
73. Westing, A. 1988. Establishment and management of transfrontier reserves for conflict prevention and confidence building. Environmental Conservation 25 (2): 91-94.
74. Wild, F. 2013. Rhino's dying breath signals eneral's return to war. Bloomberg. 2 May 2013. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-05-01/rhino-s-dying-breath-signals-general-s-return-to-war.html (last accessed 29 October 2013).
75. Woodward, R. 2004. Military geographies. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
76. World Wildlife Fund (WWF). 2012. Google helps WWF stop wildlife crime. http://worldwildlife.org/stories/google-helps-wwf-stop-wildlife-crime (last accessed 29 October 2013).
77. Ybarra, M. 2012. Taming the jungle, saving the Maya Forest: Sedimented counterinsurgency practices in contemporary Guatemalan conservation. Journal of Peasant Studies 39 (2): 479-502.